Articles | Volume 28, issue 17
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-3963-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-3963-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
02 Sep 2024
Research article |
| 02 Sep 2024
| 02 Sep 2024
Hydrological and pedological effects of combining Italian alder and blackberries in an agroforestry windbreak system in South Africa
Svenja Hoffmeister
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Institute of Water and Environment, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
Invited contribution by Svenja Hoffmeister, recipient of the Outstanding Student and PhD candidate Presentation (OSPP) Award 2022.
Rafael Bohn Reckziegel
Institute of Forest Sciences, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods (RIEL), Faculty of Science and Technology, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT, Australia
Ben du Toit
Department of Forest and Wood Science, Stellenbosch University, 7602 Stellenbosch, South Africa
Sibylle K. Hassler
Institute of Water and Environment, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
Institute for Meteorology and Climate Research, Atmospheric Trace Gases and Remote Sensing, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
Florian Kestel
Soil Erosion and Feedback, Research Area 1 “Landscape Functioning”, Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), 15374 Müncheberg, Germany
Rebekka Maier
Institute of Forest Sciences, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
Jonathan P. Sheppard
Institute of Forest Sciences, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
Erwin Zehe
Institute of Water and Environment, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
Related authors
Svenja Hoffmeister, Sibylle Kathrin Hassler, Friederike Lang, Rebekka Maier, Betserai Isaac Nyoka, and Erwin Zehe
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1719, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1719, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Combining trees and crops in agroforestry systems can potentially be a sustainable option for agriculture facing climate change impacts. We used methods from soil science and hydrology to assess the effect of adding gliricidia trees to maize fields, on carbon content, soil properties and water availability. Our results show a clear increase in carbon contents and effects on physical soil characteristics and water uptake and retention as a consequence of the agroforestry treatment.
Dan Elhanati, Erwin Zehe, Ishai Dror, and Brian Berkowitz
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3365, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3365, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Measurements of water isotopes are often used to estimate water transit time distributions and aquifer storage thickness in catchments. However, laboratory-scale measurements show that water isotopes exhibit transport behavior identical to that of inert chemical tracers rather than of pure water. The measured mean tracer and apparent mean water velocities are not necessarily equal; recognition of this inequality is critical when estimating catchment properties such as aquifer storage thickness.
Karl Nicolaus van Zweel, Laurent Gourdol, Jean François Iffly, Loïc Léonard, François Barnich, Laurent Pfister, Erwin Zehe, and Christophe Hissler
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 2217–2229, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2217-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2217-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Our study monitored groundwater in a Luxembourg forest over a year to understand water and chemical changes. We found seasonal variations in water chemistry, influenced by rainfall and soil interactions. These data help predict environmental responses and manage water resources better. By measuring key parameters like pH and dissolved oxygen, our research provides valuable insights into groundwater behaviour and serves as a resource for future environmental studies.
Svenja Hoffmeister, Sibylle Kathrin Hassler, Friederike Lang, Rebekka Maier, Betserai Isaac Nyoka, and Erwin Zehe
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1719, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1719, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Combining trees and crops in agroforestry systems can potentially be a sustainable option for agriculture facing climate change impacts. We used methods from soil science and hydrology to assess the effect of adding gliricidia trees to maize fields, on carbon content, soil properties and water availability. Our results show a clear increase in carbon contents and effects on physical soil characteristics and water uptake and retention as a consequence of the agroforestry treatment.
Evgeny Shavelzon, Erwin Zehe, and Yaniv Edery
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.173687429.91307309/v1, https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.173687429.91307309/v1, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We analyze how chemical reactions and fluid movement interact in porous materials, focusing on how water paths form in underground environments. Using a thermodynamic approach, we track energy dissipation and entropy changes to understand this process. Over time, water channels become more defined, reducing chemical mixing and energy loss. Eventually, the system stabilizes, with flow concentrated in efficient pathways, minimizing further reactions and energy use.
Ashish Manoj J, Ralf Loritz, Hoshin Gupta, and Erwin Zehe
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2024-375, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2024-375, 2024
Revised manuscript under review for HESS
Short summary
Short summary
Traditional hydrological models typically operate in a forward mode, simulating streamflow and other catchment fluxes based on precipitation input. In this study, we explored the possibility of reversing this process—inferring precipitation from streamflow data—to improve flood event modelling. We then used the generated precipitation series to run hydrological models, resulting in more accurate estimates of streamflow and soil moisture.
Ralf Loritz, Alexander Dolich, Eduardo Acuña Espinoza, Pia Ebeling, Björn Guse, Jonas Götte, Sibylle K. Hassler, Corina Hauffe, Ingo Heidbüchel, Jens Kiesel, Mirko Mälicke, Hannes Müller-Thomy, Michael Stölzle, and Larisa Tarasova
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 5625–5642, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-5625-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-5625-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The CAMELS-DE dataset features data from 1582 streamflow gauges across Germany, with records spanning from 1951 to 2020. This comprehensive dataset, which includes time series of up to 70 years (median 46 years), enables advanced research on water flow and environmental trends and supports the development of hydrological models.
Sibylle Kathrin Hassler, Rafael Bohn Reckziegel, Ben du Toit, Svenja Hoffmeister, Florian Kestel, Anton Kunneke, Rebekka Maier, and Jonathan Paul Sheppard
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 3935–3948, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-3935-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-3935-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Agroforestry systems (AFSs) combine trees and crops within the same land unit, providing a sustainable land use option which protects natural resources and biodiversity. Introducing trees into agricultural systems can positively affect water resources, soil characteristics, biomass and microclimate. We studied an AFS in South Africa in a multidisciplinary approach to assess the different influences and present the resulting dataset consisting of water, soil, tree and meteorological variables.
Samuel Schroers, Ulrike Scherer, and Erwin Zehe
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 2535–2557, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-2535-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-2535-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The hydrological cycle shapes our landscape. With an accelerating change of the world's climate and hydrological dynamics, concepts of evolution of natural systems become more important. In this study, we elaborated a thermodynamic framework for runoff and sediment transport and show from model results as well as from measurements during extreme events that the developed concept is useful for understanding the evolution of the system's mass, energy, and entropy fluxes.
Judith Meyer, Malte Neuper, Luca Mathias, Erwin Zehe, and Laurent Pfister
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 6163–6183, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-6163-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-6163-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We identified and analysed the major atmospheric components of rain-intense thunderstorms that can eventually lead to flash floods: high atmospheric moisture, sufficient latent instability, and weak thunderstorm cell motion. Between 1981 and 2020, atmospheric conditions became likelier to support strong thunderstorms. However, the occurrence of extreme rainfall events as well as their rainfall intensity remained mostly unchanged.
Ralf Loritz, Maoya Bassiouni, Anke Hildebrandt, Sibylle K. Hassler, and Erwin Zehe
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 4757–4771, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-4757-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-4757-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we combine a deep-learning approach that predicts sap flow with a hydrological model to improve soil moisture and transpiration estimates at the catchment scale. Our results highlight that hybrid-model approaches, combining machine learning with physically based models, are a promising way to improve our ability to make hydrological predictions.
Samuel Schroers, Olivier Eiff, Axel Kleidon, Ulrike Scherer, Jan Wienhöfer, and Erwin Zehe
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 3125–3150, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-3125-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-3125-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In hydrology the formation of landform patterns is of special interest as changing forcings of the natural systems, such as climate or land use, will change these structures. In our study we developed a thermodynamic framework for surface runoff on hillslopes and highlight the differences of energy conversion patterns on two related spatial and temporal scales. The results indicate that surface runoff on hillslopes approaches a maximum power state.
Alexander Sternagel, Ralf Loritz, Brian Berkowitz, and Erwin Zehe
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 1615–1629, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-1615-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-1615-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We present a (physically based) Lagrangian approach to simulate diffusive mixing processes on the pore scale beyond perfectly mixed conditions. Results show the feasibility of the approach for reproducing measured mixing times and concentrations of isotopes over pore sizes and that typical shapes of breakthrough curves (normally associated with non-uniform transport in heterogeneous soils) may also occur as a result of imperfect subscale mixing in a macroscopically homogeneous soil matrix.
Erwin Zehe, Ralf Loritz, Yaniv Edery, and Brian Berkowitz
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 5337–5353, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5337-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5337-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study uses the concepts of entropy and work to quantify and explain the emergence of preferential flow and transport in heterogeneous saturated porous media. We found that the downstream concentration of solutes in preferential pathways implies a downstream declining entropy in the transverse distribution of solute transport pathways. Preferential flow patterns with lower entropies emerged within media of higher heterogeneity – a stronger self-organization despite a higher randomness.
Conrad Jackisch, Sibylle K. Hassler, Tobias L. Hohenbrink, Theresa Blume, Hjalmar Laudon, Hilary McMillan, Patricia Saco, and Loes van Schaik
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 5277–5285, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5277-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5277-2021, 2021
Jan Bondy, Jan Wienhöfer, Laurent Pfister, and Erwin Zehe
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2021-174, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2021-174, 2021
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Short summary
Short summary
The Budyko curve is a widely-used and simple framework to predict the mean water balance of river catchments. While many catchments are in close accordance with the Budyko curve, others show more or less significant deviations. Our study aims at better understanding the role of soil storage characteristics in the mean water balance and offsets from the Budyko curve. Soil storage proved to be a very sensitive property and potentially explains significant deviations from the curve.
Alexander Sternagel, Ralf Loritz, Julian Klaus, Brian Berkowitz, and Erwin Zehe
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 1483–1508, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-1483-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-1483-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The key innovation of the study is a method to simulate reactive solute transport in the vadose zone within a Lagrangian framework. We extend the LAST-Model with a method to account for non-linear sorption and first-order degradation processes during unsaturated transport of reactive substances in the matrix and macropores. Model evaluations using bromide and pesticide data from irrigation experiments under different flow conditions on various timescales show the feasibility of the method.
Samuel Schroers, Olivier Eiff, Axel Kleidon, Jan Wienhöfer, and Erwin Zehe
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2021-79, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2021-79, 2021
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Short summary
Short summary
In this study we ask the basic question why surface runoff forms drainage networks and confluences at all and how structural macro form and micro topography is a result of thermodynamic laws. We find that on a macro level hillslopes should tend from negative exponential towards exponential forms and that on a micro level the formation of rills goes hand in hand with drainage network formation of river basins. We hypothesize that we can learn more about erosion processes if we extend this theory.
Nicolas Björn Rodriguez, Laurent Pfister, Erwin Zehe, and Julian Klaus
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 401–428, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-401-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-401-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Different parts of water have often been used as tracers to determine the age of water in streams. The stable tracers, such as deuterium, are thought to be unable to reveal old water compared to the radioactive tracer called tritium. We used both tracers, measured in precipitation and in a stream in Luxembourg, to show that this is not necessarily true. It is, in fact, advantageous to use the two tracers together, and we recommend systematically using tritium in future studies.
Ralf Loritz, Markus Hrachowitz, Malte Neuper, and Erwin Zehe
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 147–167, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-147-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-147-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the role and value of distributed rainfall in the runoff generation of a mesoscale catchment. We compare the performance of different hydrological models at different periods and show that a distributed model driven by distributed rainfall yields improved performances only during certain periods. We then step beyond this finding and develop a spatially adaptive model that is capable of dynamically adjusting its spatial model structure in time.
Conrad Jackisch, Samuel Knoblauch, Theresa Blume, Erwin Zehe, and Sibylle K. Hassler
Biogeosciences, 17, 5787–5808, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-5787-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-5787-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We developed software to calculate the root water uptake (RWU) of beech tree roots from soil moisture dynamics. We present our approach and compare RWU to measured sap flow in the tree stem. The study relates to two sites that are similar in topography and weather but with contrasting soils. While sap flow is very similar between the two sites, the RWU is different. This suggests that soil characteristics have substantial influence. Our easy-to-implement RWU estimate may help further studies.
Cited articles
Albrecht, A. and Kandji, S. T.: Carbon sequestration in tropical agroforestry systems, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 99, 15–27, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(03)00138-5, 2003.
Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D., and Smith, M.: Crop Evapotranspiration – Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements. FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, ISBN 9251042195, https://www.fao.org/4/X0490E/x0490e00.htm (last access: 22 August 2024), 1998.
Baptista, M. D., Livesley, S. J., Parmehr, E. G., Neave, M., and Amati, M.: Variation in leaf area density drives the rainfall storage capacity of individual urban tree species, Hydrol. Process., 32, 3729–3740, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13255, 2018.
Bogie, N. A., Bayala, R., Diedhiou, I., Dick, R. P., and Ghezzehei, T. A.: Alteration of soil physical properties and processes after ten years of intercropping with native shrubs in the Sahel, Soil Till. Res., 182, 153–163, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2018.05.010, 2018.
Bohn Reckziegel, R., Larysch, E., Sheppard, J. P., Kahle, H.-P., and Morhart, C.: Modelling and Comparing Shading Effects of 3D Tree Structures with Virtual Leaves, Remote Sens., 13, 532, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13030532, 2021.
Bohn Reckziegel, R., Sheppard, J. P., Kahle, H.-P., Larysch, E., Spiecker, H., Seifert, T., and Morhart, C.: Virtual pruning of 3D trees as a tool for managing shading effects in agroforestry systems, Agrofor. Syst., 96, 89–104, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-021-00697-5, 2022.
Bréda, N. J. J.: Leaf Area Index, edited by: Jorgensen, S. E. and Fath, B. D., Gen. Ecol. Encycl. Ecol., 3, 2148–2154, 2008.
Bruzzese, E.: The biology of blackberry in south-eastern Australia, Plant Prot. Q., 13, 160–162, 1998.
Budyko, M.: Climate and life, Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 508 pp., ISBN 9780121394509, 1974.
Calders, K., Newnham, G., Burt, A., Murphy, S., Raumonen, P., Herold, M., Culvenor, D., Avitabile, V., Disney, M., Armston, J., and Kaasalainen, M.: Nondestructive estimates of above-ground biomass using terrestrial laser scanning, Meth. Ecol. Evol., 6, 198–208, https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12301, 2015.
Campi, P., Palumbo, A. D., and Mastrorilli, M.: Effects of tree windbreak on microclimate and wheat productivity in a Mediterranean environment, Eur. J. Agron., 30, 220–227, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2008.10.004, 2009.
Claessens, H., Oosterbaan, A., Savill, P., and Rondeux, J.: A review of the characteristics of black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) and their implications for silvicultural practices, Forestry, 83, 163–175, https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpp038, 2010.
Climate-Data.org: Stellenbosch Climate (South Africa), https://en.climate-data.org/africa/south-africa/western-cape/stellenbosch-6770/ (last access: 22 January 2024), 2024.
Crameri, F.: Scientific colour maps, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1243862, 2018.
Dingman, S. L.: Physical Hydrology, Third, Waveland Pr Inc, Long Grove, Illinois, 643 pp., ISBN 9781478611189, 2015.
Douville, H., Raghavan, K., Renwick, J., Allan, R. P., Arias, P. A., Barlow, M., Cerezo-Mota, R., Cherchi, A., Gan, T. Y., Gergis, J., Jiang, D., Khan, A., Pokam Mba, W., Rosenfeld, D., Tierney, J., and Zolina, O.: Water Cycle Changes, in: Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Pirani, A., Connors, S. L., Péan, C., Berger, S., Caud, N., Chen, Y., Goldfarb, L., Gomis, M. I., Huang, M., Leitzell, K., Lonnoy, E., Matthews, J. B. R., Maycock, T. K., Waterfield, T., Yelekçi, O., Yu, R., and Zhou, B., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 1055–1210, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.010, 2021.
Fauchereau, N., Trzaska, S., Rouault, M., and Richard, Y.: Rainfall variability and changes in Southern Africa during the 20th century in the global warming context, Nat. Hazards, 29, 139–154, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023630924100, 2003.
Frouz, J., Dvoršèík, P., Vávrová, A., Doušová, O., Kadochová, Š., and Matìjíèek, L.: Development of canopy cover and woody vegetation biomass on reclaimed and unreclaimed post-mining sites, Ecol. Eng., 84, 233–239, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.09.027, 2015.
Ghausi, S. A., Tian, Y., Zehe, E., and Kleidon, A.: Radiative controls by clouds and thermodynamics shape surface temperatures and turbulent fluxes over land, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 120, 29, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2220400120, 2023.
Guderle, M. and Hildebrandt, A.: Using measured soil water contents to estimate evapotranspiration and root water uptake profiles – a comparative study, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 409–425, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-409-2015, 2015.
Guest, G., Bright, R. M., Cherubini, F., and Strømman, A. H.: Consistent quantification of climate impacts due to biogenic carbon storage across a range of bio-product systems, Environ. Impact Assess. Rev., 43, 21–30, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2013.05.002, 2013.
Häckel, H.: Farbatlas Wetterphänomene, Ulmer, ISBN 9783800135110, 1999.
Hassler, S. K., Bohn Reckziegel, R., du Toit, B., Hoffmeister, S., Kestel, F., Kunneke, A., Maier, R., and Sheppard, J. P.: Multivariate characterisation of a blackberry–alder agroforestry system in South Africa: hydrological, pedological, dendrological and meteorological measurements, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 3935–3948, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-3935-2024, 2024a.
Hassler, S. K., Bohn Reckziegel, R., du Toit, B., Hoffmeister, S., Kestel, F., Kunneke, A., Maier, R., and Sheppard, J. P.: Hydrological, pedological, dendrological and meteorological measurements in a blackberry-alder agroforestry system in South Africa, GFZ Data Services [data set], https://doi.org/10.5880/fidgeo.2023.028, 2024b.
Herbst, M., Eschenbach, C., and Kappen, L.: Water use in neighbouring stands of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), Ann. Foest. Sci., 56, 107–120, https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:19990203, 1999.
Hintermaier-Erhard, G. and Zech, W.: Wörterbuch der Bodenkunde, Enke, Stuttgart, ISBN 9783432299716, 1997.
ISO 11277:2002: Soil quality – Determination of particle size distribution in mineral soil material – Method by sieving and sedimentation – Technical Corrigendum 1, 2, 2002.
IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update 2015, International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps, World Soil Resources Reports No. 106, FAO, Rome, https://www.fao.org/3/i3794en/I3794en.pdf (last access: 22 August 2024), 2014.
Jackisch, C., Angermann, L., Allroggen, N., Sprenger, M., Blume, T., Tronicke, J., and Zehe, E.: Form and function in hillslope hydrology: in situ imaging and characterization of flow-relevant structures, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 3749–3775, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3749-2017, 2017.
Jackisch, C., Knoblauch, S., Blume, T., Zehe, E., and Hassler, S. K.: Estimates of tree root water uptake from soil moisture profile dynamics, Biogeosciences, 17, 5787–5808, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-5787-2020, 2020.
Jahn, R., Blume, H.-P., Asio, V. B., Spaargaren, O. C., and Schad, P.: Guidelines for soil description, in: 4th Edn., FAO, ISBN 9251055211, https://www.fao.org/3/a0541e/a0541e.pdf (last access: 22 August 2024), 2006.
Johansson, T.: Dry matter amounts and increment in 21- to 91-year-old common alder and grey alder and some practical implications, Can. J. Forest. Res., 29, 1679–1690, https://doi.org/10.1139/x99-126, 1999.
Jose, S.: Agroforestry for ecosystem services and environmental benefits: an overview, Agroforest. Syst., 76, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-009-9229-7, 2009.
Kuyah, S., Whitney, C. W., Jonsson, M., Sileshi, G. W., Öborn, I., Muthuri, C. W., and Luedeling, E.: Agroforestry delivers a win-win solution for ecosystem services in sub-Saharan Africa. A meta-analysis, Agron. Sustain. Dev., 39, 47, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-019-0589-8, 2019.
Lal, R.: Soil organic matter and water retention, Agron. J., 112, 3265–3277, https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.20282, 2020.
Mbow, C., Van Noordwijk, M., Luedeling, E., Neufeldt, H., Minang, P. A., and Kowero, G.: Agroforestry solutions to address food security and climate change challenges in Africa, Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain., 6, 61–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.10.014, 2014.
McNaughton, K. G.: Effects of windbreaks on turbulent transport and microclimate, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 22/23, 17–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(88)90006-0, 1988.
Meadows, M. E.: The Cape Winelands, in: Landscapes and Landforms of South Africa. World Geomorphological Landscapes, edited by: Grab, S. and Knight, J., Springer, Cham., 103–109, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-03560-4_12, 2015.
Mualem, Y.: A new model for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media, Water Resour. Res., 12, 513–522, https://doi.org/10.1029/WR012i003p00513, 1976.
Muthuri, C. W., Ong, C. K., Black, C. R., Mati, B. M., Ngumi, V. W., and Van-Noordwijk, M.: Modelling the effects of leafing phenology on growth and water use by selected agroforestry tree species in semi-arid Kenya, L. Use Water Resour. Res., 4, 1–11, 2004.
Nägeli, W.: Untersuchungen über die Windverhältnisse im Bereich von Windschutzstreifen, in: Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Anstalt für das Forstliche Versuchswesen: Vol. 23/1, edited by: Burger, H., Beer, 223–276, https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/wsl/islandora/object/wsl:24055 (last access: 22 August 2024), 1943.
Ndebele, N. E., Grab, S., and Turasie, A.: Characterizing rainfall in the south-western Cape, South Africa: 1841–2016, Int. J. Climatol., 40, 1992–2014, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.6314, 2020.
Peters, A.: Reply to comment by S. Iden and W. Durner on “Simple consistent models for water retention and hydraulic conductivity in the complete moisture range”, Water Resour. Res., 50, 7535–7539, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016107, 2014.
Raumonen, P.: Quantitative structure models of single trees from laser scanner data: Instructions for MATLAB-software TreeQSM, GitHub [code], https://github.com/InverseTampere/TreeQSM (last access: 22 August 2024), 2017.
Raumonen, P., Kaasalainen, M., Markku, Å., Kaasalainen, S., Kaartinen, H., Vastaranta, M., Holopainen, M., Disney, M., and Lewis, P.: Fast automatic precision tree models from terrestrial laser scanner data, Remote Sens., 5, 491–520, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs5020491, 2013.
Rosenstock, T. S., Dawson, I. K., Aynekulu, E., Chomba, S., Degrande, A., Fornace, K., Jamnadass, R., Kimaro, A., Kindt, R., Lamanna, C., Malesu, M., Mausch, K., McMullin, S., Murage, P., Namoi, N., Njenga, M., Nyoka, I., Paez Valencia, A. M., Sola, P., Shepherd, K., and Steward, P.: A Planetary Health Perspective on Agroforestry in Sub-Saharan Africa, One Earth, 1, 330–344, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.10.017, 2019.
San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., and Mauri, A. (Eds.): European atlas of forest tree species, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://doi.org/10.2760/776635, 2016.
Schumacher, J. and Christiansen, J. R.: LiDAR Applications to Forest-Water Interactions, in: Forest-water interactions, vol. 240, edited by: Levia, D. F., Canadell, J. G., Díaz, S., Heldmaier, G., Jackson, R. B., Schulze, E.-D., Sommer, U., and Wardle, D. A., Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 87–112, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26086-6_4, 2020.
Shao, Y. (Ed.): Physics and Modelling of Wind Erosion, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8895-7, 2008.
Sheppard, J. P., Bohn Reckziegel, R., Borrass, L., Chirwa, P. W., Cuaranhua, C. J., Hassler, S. K., Hoffmeister, S., Kestel, F., Maier, R., Mälicke, M., Morhart, C., Ndlovu, N. P., Veste, M., Funk, R., Lang, F., Seifert, T., du Toit, B., and Kahle, H.-P.: Agroforestry: An Appropriate and Sustainable Response to a Changing Climate in Southern Africa?, Sustainability, 12, 6796, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12176796, 2020a.
Sheppard, J. P., Chamberlain, J., Agúndez, D., Bhattacharya, P., Chirwa, P. W., Gontcharov, A., Sagona, W. C. J., Shen, H. long, Tadesse, W., and Mutke, S.: Sustainable Forest Management Beyond the Timber-Oriented Status Quo: Transitioning to Co-production of Timber and Non-wood Forest Products – a Global Perspective, Curr. Forest. Rep., 6, 26–40, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-019-00107-1, 2020b.
Sheppard, J. P., Larysch, E., Cuaranhua, C. J., Schindler, Z., du Toit, B., Malherbe, G. F., Kunneke, A., Morhart, C., Bohn Reckziegel, R., Seifert, T., and Kahle, H.-P.: Assessment of biomass and carbon storage of a Populus simonii windbreak located in the Western Cape Province, South Africa, Agroforest. Syst., 98, 697–714, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-023-00940-1, 2024.
Shi, L., Feng, W., Xu, J., and Kuzyakov, Y.: Agroforestry systems: Meta-analysis of soil carbon stocks, sequestration processes, and future potentials, Land Degrad. Dev., 29, 3886–3897, https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3136, 2018.
Sileshi, G. W., Akinnifesi, F. K., Mafongoya, P. L., Kuntashula, E., and Ajayi, O. C.: Potential of Gliricidia-Based Agroforestry Systems for Resource-Limited Agroecosystems, in: Agroforestry for Degraded Landscapes, Springer, Singapore, 255–282, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4136-0_9, 2020.
Smith, M. M., Bentrup, G., Kellerman, T., MacFarland, K., Straight, R., and Ameyaw, Lord: Windbreaks in the United States: A systematic review of producer-reported benefits, challenges, management activities and drivers of adoption, Agricult. Syst., 187, 103032, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.103032, 2021.
Thomas, S. C. and Martin, A. R.: Carbon Content of Tree Tissues: A Synthesis, Forests, 3, 332–352, https://doi.org/10.3390/f3020332, 2012.
University of Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch Weather, http://weather.sun.ac.za/ (last access: 3 April 2023), 2023.
Van Eimern, J., Karschon, R., Razumova, L. A., and Robertson, G. W.: Windbreaks and shelterbelts: report of a working group of the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology, Technical Note 59, WMO, https://library.wmo.int/idurl/4/59492 (last access: 22 August 2024), 1964.
van Genuchten, M. T.: A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44, 892–898, https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x, 1980.
Veste, M., Littmann, T., Kunneke, A., du Toit, B., and Seifert, T.: Windbreaks as part of climate-smart landscapes reduce evapotranspiration in vineyards, Western Cape Province, South Africa, Plant Soil Environ., 66, 119–127, https://doi.org/10.17221/616/2019-PSE, 2020.
Wilkes, P., Lau, A., Disney, M., Calders, K., Burt, A., Gonzalez de Tanago, J., Bartholomeus, H., Brede, B., and Herold, M.: Data acquisition considerations for Terrestrial Laser Scanning of forest plots, Remote Sens. Environ., 196, 140–153, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.04.030, 2017.
Wilson, M. H. and Lovell, S. T.: Agroforestry-The next step in sustainable and resilient agriculture, Sustainability, 8, 6, https://doi.org/10.3390/su8060574, 2016.
World Agroforestry: Worldwide `open access' tree functional attributes and ecological database, http://db.worldagroforestry.org/ (last access: 14 August 2023), 2023.
Zehe, E., Maurer, T., Ihringer, J., and Plate, E.: Modeling water flow and mass transport in a loess catchment, Phys. Chem. Earth Pt. B, 26, 487–507, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1464-1909(01)00041-7, 2001.
Short summary
We studied a tree–crop ecosystem consisting of a blackberry field and an alder windbreak. In the water-scarce region, irrigation provides sufficient water for plant growth. The windbreak lowers the irrigation amount by reducing wind speed and therefore water transport into the atmosphere. These ecosystems could provide sustainable use of water-scarce landscapes, and we studied the complex interactions by observing several aspects (e.g. soil, nutrients, carbon assimilation, water).
We studied a tree–crop ecosystem consisting of a blackberry field and an alder windbreak. In the...
