Articles | Volume 24, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-1741-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-1741-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Near-0 °C surface temperature and precipitation type patterns across Canada
Meteorological Research Division, Environment and Climate Change
Canada, Toronto, M3H 5T4, Canada
Ronald E. Stewart
Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, R3T 2N2, Canada
Julie M. Theriault
Centre ESCER, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences,
Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, H2X 3Y7, Canada
Bohdan Kochtubajda
Meteorological Service of Canada, Environment and Climate Change
Canada, Edmonton, T6B 1K5, Canada
Barrie R. Bonsal
Watershed Hydrology and Ecology Research Division, Environment and
Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, S7N 3H5, Canada
Zhuo Liu
Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, R3T 2N2, Canada
Related authors
Craig D. Smith, Eva Mekis, Megan Hartwell, and Amber Ross
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 5253–5265, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5253-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5253-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
It is well understood that precipitation gauges underestimate the measurement of solid precipitation (snow) as a result of systematic bias caused by wind. Relationships between the wind speed and gauge catch efficiency of solid precipitation have been previously established and are applied to the hourly precipitation measurements made between 2001 and 2019 in the automated Environment and Climate Change Canada observation network. The adjusted data are available for download and use.
Zen Mariani, Laura Huang, Robert Crawford, Jean-Pierre Blanchet, Shannon Hicks-Jalali, Eva Mekis, Ludovick Pelletier, Peter Rodriguez, and Kevin Strawbridge
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 4995–5017, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4995-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4995-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) commissioned two supersites in Iqaluit (64°N, 69°W) and Whitehorse (61°N, 135°W) to provide new and enhanced automated and continuous altitude-resolved meteorological observations as part of the Canadian Arctic Weather Science (CAWS) project. These observations are being used to test new technologies, provide recommendations to the optimal Arctic observing system, and evaluate and improve the performance of numerical weather forecast systems.
Zhipeng Qu, Cuong Nguyen, Paloma Borque, Alexei Korolev, Howard W. Barker, Keyvan Ranjbar, Lei Liu, Zen Mariani, Meriem Kacimi, Melissa Cholette, Ivan Heckman, Kenny Bala, Natalia Bliankinshtein, Leonid Nichman, Benjamin Riot-Bretêcher, Yi Huang, Jason N. S. Cole, Raphaël Peroni, Stephen Holden, Robert Reed, Robert Crawford, Daniel Michelson, Eve Bigras, Michael Wheeler, John Gyakum, Jason A. Milbrandt, Julie M. Thériault, Kaley A. Walker, Mengistu Wolde, Jean-Pierre Blanchet, Yann Blanchard, Jonas von Bismark, Rob Koopman, Montserrat Piñol Solé, Bernat Puigdomènech Treserras, Robin J. Hogan, and Shannon L. Mason
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-5347, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-5347, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Measurement Techniques (AMT).
Short summary
Short summary
The ECALOT campaign brought together aircraft and ground-based observations in the Ottawa–Montreal region to help evaluate the European Space Agency’s EarthCARE satellite, which studies clouds, aerosols, radiation, and their interactions. By comparing satellite measurements with multi-platform remote-sensing and in situ observations collected during the campaign, ECALOT provides an integrated approach to evaluating EarthCARE products at different stages of the data processing chain.
Joseph Durat, Hadleigh David Thompson, Julie Mireille Thériault, and Philip Marsh
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-5195, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-5195, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
Arctic snowfall measurements are challenging as light precipitation often goes undetected. Using measurements from a portable upward-pointing radar near Inuvik, Northwest Territories, our team captured low-rate snowfall that standard instruments usually miss. Including these data increased the winter snowfall amount by 24 %, confirming that current methods underestimate the amount of snow that falls each winter and highlighting the value of improved measurements techniques.
Alexis Bédard-Therrien, François Anctil, Julie M. Thériault, Olivier Chalifour, Fanny Payette, Alexandre Vidal, and Daniel F. Nadeau
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 29, 1135–1158, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-1135-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-1135-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Precipitation data from an automated observational network in eastern Canada showed a temperature interval where rain and snow could coexist. Random forest models were developed to classify the precipitation phase using meteorological data to evaluate operational applications. The models demonstrated significantly improved phase classification and reduced error compared to benchmark operational models. However, accurate prediction of mixed-phase precipitation remains challenging.
Mathieu Lachapelle, Mélissa Cholette, and Julie M. Thériault
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 11285–11304, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-11285-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-11285-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Hazardous precipitation types such as ice pellets and freezing rain are difficult to predict because they are associated with complex microphysical processes. Using Predicted Particle Properties (P3), this work shows that secondary ice production processes increase the amount of ice pellets simulated while decreasing the amount of freezing rain. Moreover, the properties of the simulated precipitation compare well with those that were measured.
François Roberge, Alejandro Di Luca, René Laprise, Philippe Lucas-Picher, and Julie Thériault
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 1497–1510, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1497-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1497-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study addresses a challenge in dynamical downscaling using regional climate models, focusing on the lack of small-scale features near the boundaries. We introduce a method to identify this “spatial spin-up” in precipitation simulations. Results show spin-up distances up to 300 km, varying by season and driving variable. Double nesting with comprehensive variables (e.g. microphysical variables) offers advantages. Findings will help optimize simulations for better climate projections.
Hadleigh D. Thompson, Julie M. Thériault, Stephen J. Déry, Ronald E. Stewart, Dominique Boisvert, Lisa Rickard, Nicolas R. Leroux, Matteo Colli, and Vincent Vionnet
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 5785–5806, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5785-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5785-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Saint John River experiment on Cold Season Storms was conducted in northwest New Brunswick, Canada, to investigate the types of precipitation that can lead to ice jams and flooding along the river. We deployed meteorological instruments, took precipitation measurements and photographs of snowflakes, and launched weather balloons. These data will help us to better understand the atmospheric conditions that can affect local communities and townships downstream during the spring melt season.
Craig D. Smith, Eva Mekis, Megan Hartwell, and Amber Ross
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 5253–5265, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5253-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5253-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
It is well understood that precipitation gauges underestimate the measurement of solid precipitation (snow) as a result of systematic bias caused by wind. Relationships between the wind speed and gauge catch efficiency of solid precipitation have been previously established and are applied to the hourly precipitation measurements made between 2001 and 2019 in the automated Environment and Climate Change Canada observation network. The adjusted data are available for download and use.
Zen Mariani, Laura Huang, Robert Crawford, Jean-Pierre Blanchet, Shannon Hicks-Jalali, Eva Mekis, Ludovick Pelletier, Peter Rodriguez, and Kevin Strawbridge
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 4995–5017, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4995-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4995-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) commissioned two supersites in Iqaluit (64°N, 69°W) and Whitehorse (61°N, 135°W) to provide new and enhanced automated and continuous altitude-resolved meteorological observations as part of the Canadian Arctic Weather Science (CAWS) project. These observations are being used to test new technologies, provide recommendations to the optimal Arctic observing system, and evaluate and improve the performance of numerical weather forecast systems.
Cited articles
Ahrens, C. D., Jackson, P. L., and Jackson, C. E. J.: Meteorology Today: An
introduction to weather, climate, and the environment, Second Canadian
edition, Nelson Education, ISBN-13: 978-0176530792, 2015.
American Meteorological Society: Chinook, Glossary of Meteorology, available at: http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Chinook (last access date: 2 April 2020), 2012.
American Meteorological Society: Glossary of Meteorology, available at:
http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Main_Page (last access:
3 October 2019), 2018.
Auer Jr., A. H.: The rain versus snow threshold temperatures, Weatherwise,
27, 67–67, 1974.
Beltaos, S., Prowse, T., Bonsal, B., Mackay, R., Romolo, L., Pietroniro, A.,
and Toth, B.: Climatic effects on ice-jam flooding of the Peace-Athabasca
Delta, Hydrol. Process., 20, 4031–4050, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6418,
2006.
Bonsal, B. R. and Prowse, T. D.: Trends and variability in spring and autumn
0 ∘C-isotherm dates over Canada, Climatic Change, 57, 341–358,
https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022810531237, 2003.
Boone, A., Masson, V., Meyers, T., and Noilhan, J.: The influence of the
inclusion of soil freezing on simulations by a soil–vegetation–atmosphere
transfer scheme, J. Appl. Meteorol., 39, 1544–1569, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2000)039<1544:TIOTIO>2.0.CO;2, 2000.
Bresson, É., Laprise, R., Paquin, D., Thériault, J., and Elía,
R. D.: Evaluating the ability of CRCM5 to simulate mixed precipitation,
Atmos.-Ocean, 55, 79–93, https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.2017.1310084, 2017.
Brinkmann, W. and Ashwell, I.: The structure and movement of the chinook in
Alberta, Atmosphere, 6, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1080/00046973.1968.9676548, 1968.
Bush, E. and Lemmen, D. S. (Eds.): Canada's changing climate report,
Government of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, 444 pp., 2019.
Carrière, J.-M., Lainard, C., Bot, C. L., and Robart, F.: A
climatological study of surface freezing precipitation in Europe,
Meteorol. Appl., 7, 229–238, https://doi.org/10.1017/s1350482700001560,
2000.
Changnon, S. A.: Characteristics of ice storms in the United States, J.
Appl. Meteorol., 42, 630–639,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2003)042<0630:coisit>2.0.co;2,
2003.
Cortinas, J.: A climatology of freezing rain in the Great Lakes region of
North America, Mon. Weather Rev., 128, 3574–3588,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<3574:acofri>2.0.co;2,
2000.
Dai, A.: Temperature and pressure dependence of the rain-snow phase
transition over land and ocean, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L12802, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL033295, 2008.
ECCC (Environment and Climate Change Canada): Historical Climate Data
portal, available at: http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca, last
access: 3 October 2019a.
ECCC (Environment and Climate Change Canada): MANOBS (Manual of Surface
Weather Observation Standards), 8th Edition, available at:
https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/weather-manuals-documentation/manobs-surface-observations.html,
last access: 3 October 2019b.
ECCC (Environment and Climate Change Canada): Canadian Climate Normals,
available at: http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html, last access: 24 October 2019c.
Frei, C. and Schär, C.: Detection probability of trends in rare
events: Theory and application to heavy precipitation in the Alpine region,
J. Climate, 14, 1568–1584, 2001.
Fujibe, F.: On the near-0 ∘C. frequency maximum in surface air
temperature under precipitation: A statistical evidence for the melting
effect, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 79, 731–739,
2001.
Groenemeijer, P., Becker, N., Djidara, M., Gavin, K., Hellenberg, T.,
Holzer, A. M., Juga, I., Jokinen, P., Jylhä, K., Lehtonen, I.,
Mäkelä, H., Napoles, O., Nissen, K., Paprotny, D., Prak, P.,
Púčik, T., Tijssen L., and Vajda, A.: Past Cases of Extreme Weather
Impact on Critical Infrastructure in Europe. Office of Critical
Infrastructure Protection and Emergency Preparedness, FP7-SEC-2013-1, 129 pp., 2017.
Groisman, P. Y., Bulygina, O. N., Yin, X., Vose, R. S., Gulev, S. K.,
Hanssen-Bauer, I., and Førland, E.: Recent changes in the frequency of
freezing precipitation in North America and Northern Eurasia, Environ.
Res. Lett., 11, 045007, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/045007, 2016.
Gullett, D. W. and Skinner, W. R.: The state of Canada's climate: temperature change in Canada 1895-1991, SOE Report no. 92-2. Catalogue No. En 1-11/92-2E.A, State of the Environment Report, ISSN 0843-6193, Toronto, ON, Environment Canada, 1992.
Hare, K.: Canada's climate: An overall perspective, in: “The Surface
Climates of Canada”, McGill-Queen's University Press, 3–20, 1997.
Henson, W., Stewart, R., and Kochtubajda, B.: On the precipitation and
related features of the 1998 Ice Storm in the Montréal area, Atmos.
Res., 83, 36–54, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2006.03.006, 2007.
Henson, W., Stewart, R., Kochtubajda, B., and Thériault, J.: The 1998 Ice
Storm: Local flow fields and linkages to precipitation, Atmos.
Res., 101, 852–862, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.05.014, 2011.
Houston, T. G. and Changnon, S. A.: Freezing rain events: a major weather
hazard in the conterminous US, Nat. Hazards, 40, 485–494,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-006-9006-0, 2007.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Climate Change 2013: The Physical
Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Stocker, T. F.,
Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S. K., Boschung, J., Nauels,
A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P. M., Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp.,
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324, 2013.
Jennings, K. S., Winchell, T. S., Livneh, B., and Molotch, N. P.: Spatial
variation of the rain–snow temperature threshold across the Northern
Hemisphere, Nat. Commun., 9, 1148, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03629-7,
2018.
Jeong, D. I., Cannon, A. J., and Zhang, X.: Projected changes to extreme freezing precipitation and design ice loads over North America based on a large ensemble of Canadian regional climate model simulations, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 857–872, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-19-857-2019, 2019.
Kämäräinen, M., Hyvärinen, O., Jylhä, K., Vajda, A., Neiglick, S., Nuottokari, J., and Gregow, H.: A method to estimate freezing rain climatology from ERA-Interim reanalysis over Europe, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 243–259, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-243-2017, 2017.
Keim, B. D. and Cruise, J. F.: A technique to measure trends in the
frequency of discrete random events, J. Climate, 11, 848–855, 1998.
Kendall, M. B.: Rank Correlation Methods, Hafner Publishing Company, New
York, 1955.
Kerry, M., Kelk, G., Etkin, D., Burton, I., and Kalhok, S.: Glazed over: Canada
copes with the Ice Storm of 1998, Environment, 41, 6–11, 1999.
Kienzle, S. W.: A new temperature based method to separate rain and snow,
Hydrol. Process., 22, 5067–5085, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7131, 2008.
Klaassen, J., Cheng, C. S., Auld, H., Li, Q., Ros, E., Geast, M., Li, G., and
Lee, R.: Estimation of Severe Ice Storm Risks for South-Central Canada.
Report prepared for Office of Critical Infrastructure Protection and
Emergency Preparedness, Meteorological Service of Canada, Environment
Canada, Toronto, Canada, 2003.
Kochtubajda, B., Mooney, C., and Stewart, R.: Characteristics, atmospheric
drivers and occurrence patterns of freezing precipitation and ice pellets
over the Prairie Provinces and Arctic Territories of Canada: 1964–2005,
Atmos. Res., 191, 115–127, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2017.03.005,
2017.
Kraatz, S., Jacobs, J. M., and Miller, H. J.: Spatial and temporal
freeze-thaw variations in Alaskan roads, Cold Reg. Sci.
Technol., 157, 149–162, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.10.006, 2019.
Lambert, S. J. and Hansen, B. K.: Simulated changes in the freezing rain
Climatology of North America under global warming using a coupled climate
model, Atmos.-Ocean, 49, 289–295, https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.2011.607492,
2011.
Larouche, P. and Galbraith, P. S.: Canadian coastal seas and Great Lakes Sea
Surface Temperature climatology and recent trends, Can. J.
Remote Sens., 42, 243–258, https://doi.org/10.1080/07038992.2016.1166041, 2016.
Laute, K. and Beylich, A. A.: Potential effects of climate change on future
snow avalanche activity in western Norway deduced from meteorological data,
Geogr. Ann. A, 100, 163–184,
https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.2018.1425622, 2018.
Lecomte, E. L., Pang, A. W., and Russell, J. W.: Ice Storm '98. Institute for
Catastrophic Loss Reduction, Toronto, Ontario, Research Paper Series 1, 37 pp., 1998.
Lindenschmidt, K.-E., Das, A., Rokaya, P., and Chu, T.: Ice-jam flood risk
assessment and mapping, Hydrol. Process., 30, 3754–3769,
https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10853, 2016.
Longley, R. W.: The frequency of winter chinooks in Alberta, Atmosphere,
5, 4–16, https://doi.org/10.1080/00046973.1967.9676538, 1967.
MacKay, G. A. and Thompson, H. A.: Estimating the hazard of ice accretion in
Canada from climatological data, J. Appl. Meteorol., 8,
927–935, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1969)008<0927:ethoia>2.0.co;2, 1969.
Matsuo, T. and Sasyo, Y.: Empirical formula for the melting rate of
snowflakes, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II, 59,
1–9, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.59.1_1, 1981a.
Matsuo, T. and Sasyo, Y.: Melting of snowflakes below freezing level in the
atmosphere, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II, 59,
10–25, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.59.1_10, 1981b.
Matsuo, T., Sasyo, Y., and Sato, Y.: Relationship between types of
precipitation on the ground and surface meteorological elements, J.
Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II, 59, 462–476,
https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.59.4_462, 1981.
Matte, D., Thériault, J. M., and Laprise, R.: Mixed precipitation
occurrences over southern Québec, Canada, under warmer climate
conditions using a regional climate model, Clim. Dynam., 53, 1125–1141,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4231-2, 2019.
McCullagh, P. and Nelder, J. A.: Generalized linear models, 2nd ed.,
Monogr. on Statistics and Appl. Probability, No. 37, Chapman and Hall,
London, UK, 1989.
McFadden, V. and Thériault, J. M.: Simulations of the ice storm in
the Maritime Provinces on 24–26 January 2017, Canadian Meteorological and
Oceanographic Society Congress, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 2018.
McKenney, D. W., Pedlar, J. H., Lawrence, K., Papadopol, P., Campbell, K.,
and Hutchinson, M. F.: Change and evolution in the plant hardiness zones of
Canada, BioScience, 64, 341–350, https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biu016, 2014.
Mekis, É., Vincent, L. A., Shephard, M. W., and Zhang, X.: Observed trends in severe weather conditions based on humidex, wind chill, and heavy rainfall events in Canada for 1953–2012, Atmos.-Ocean, 53, 383–397, https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.2015.1086970, 2015.
Mekis, E., Donaldson, N., Reid, J., Zucconi, A., Hoover, J., Li, Q., Nitu,
R., and Melo, S.: An overview of surface-based precipitation observations at
Environment and Climate Change Canada, Atmos.-Ocean, 56, 71–95,
https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.2018.1433627, 2018.
Mendoza, G.-P. and Schmunk, R.: Fraser Valley ice storm creates slippery
roads, leaves thousands without power | CBC News, CBCnews, available at:
https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/fraser-valley-winter-storm-december-2017-1.4467154 (last access: 2 April 2020),
2017.
Milton, J. and Bourque, A.: A climatological account of the January 1998 Ice
Storm in Québec, Atmospheric Sciences and Environmental Issues Division,
Environment Canada, Québec Region, 87 pp., 1999.
Moen, J. and Fredman, P.: Effects of climate change on alpine skiing in
Sweden, J. Sustain. Tour., 15, 418–437,
https://doi.org/10.2167/jost624.0, 2007.
Nitu, R., Roulet, Y. A., Wolff, M., Earle, M., Reverdin, A., Smith, C.,
Kochendorfer, J., Morin, S., Rasmussen, R., Wong, K., Alastrué, J.,
Arnold, L., Baker, B., Buisán, S., Collado, J. L., Colli, M., Collins,
B., Gaydos, A., Hannula, H. R., Hoover, J., Joe, P., Kontu, A., Laine, T.,
Lanza, L., Lanzinger, E., Lee, G. W., Lejeune, Y., Leppänen, L., Mekis,
E., Panel, J. M., Poikonen, A., Ryu, S., Sabatini, F., Theriault, J., Yang,
D., Genthon, C., van den Heuvel, F., Hirasawa, N., Konishi, H., Nishimura,
K., and Senese, A.: WMO Solid Precipitation Intercomparison Experiment
(SPICE) (2012–2015), World Meteorological Organization Instruments and
Observing Methods Report No. 131, Geneva, 2018.
Nkemdirim, L. C.: Canada's chinook belt, Int. J.
Climatol., 16, 441–462,
https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0088(199604)16:4< 441::aid-joc21>3.0.co;2-t, 1996.
Phillips, D.: The Climates of Canada, Supply and Services Canada, Ottawa,
176 pp., 1990.
Sen, P. K.: Estimates of the regression coefficient Based on Kendall's tau,
J. Am. Stat. Assoc., 63, 1379–1389,
https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1968.10480934, 1968.
Sims, E. M. and Liu, G.: A parameterization of the probability of snow–rain
transition, J. Hydrometeorol., 16, 1466–1477,
https://doi.org/10.1175/jhm-d-14-0211.1, 2015.
Stewart, R. and Patenaude, L.: Rain-snow boundaries and freezing
precipitation in Canadian East Coast winter storms, Atmos.-Ocean, 26,
377–398, https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.1988.9649309, 1988.
Stewart, R. E.: Precipitation types in winter storms, Pure Appl.
Geophys., 123, 597–609, 1985.
Stewart, R. E. and Yiu, D. T.: Distributions of precipitation and associated
parameters across precipitation type transitions over southern Ontario,
Atmos. Res., 29, 153–178, https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-8095(93)90002-6,
1993.
Stewart, R. E., Isaac, G. A., and Shaw, R. W.: Canadian Atlantic Storms
Program: The meteorological field project, B. Am.
Meteorol. Soc., 68, 338–345,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1987)068<0338:casptm>2.0.co;2,
1987.
Stewart, R. E., Bachand, D., Dunkley, R., Giles, A., Lawson, B., Legal, L.,
Miller, S., Murphy, B., Parker, M., Paruk, B., and Yau, M.: Winter storms
over Canada, Atmos.-Ocean, 33, 223–247,
https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.1995.9649533, 1995a.
Stewart, R. E., Yui, D. T., Chung, K. K., Hudak, D. R.,
Lozowski, E. P., Oleskiw, M., Sheppard, B. E., and Szeto, K. K.: Weather
conditions associated with the passage of precipitation type transition
regions over Eastern Newfoundland, Atmos.-Ocean, 33, 25–53, 1995b.
Stewart, R. E., Szeto, K. K., Bonsal, B. R., Hanesiak, J. M., Kochtubajda, B., Li, Y., Thériault, J. M., DeBeer, C. M., Tam, B. Y., Li, Z., Liu, Z., Bruneau, J. A., Duplessis, P., Marinier, S., and Matte, D.: Summary and synthesis of Changing Cold Regions Network (CCRN) research in the interior of western Canada – Part 1: Projected climate and meteorology, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 3437–3455, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-3437-2019, 2019.
Stuart, R. and Isaac, G.: Freezing precipitation in Canada,
Atmos.-Ocean, 37, 87–102, https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.1999.9649622, 1999.
Takeuchi, Y., Kodama, Y., and Ishikawa, N.: The thermal effect of melting
snow/ice surface on lower atmospheric temperature, Arct. Antarct.
Alp. Res., 34, 20–25, https://doi.org/10.2307/1552504, 2002.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: Snow hydrology: Summary report of the snow
investigations, North Pacific Division, Portland, Ore, 437 pp., 1956.
Vincent, L. A., Zhang, X., Brown, R. D., Feng, Y., Mekis, E., Milewska, E.
J., Wan, H., and Wang, X. L.: Observed trends in Canada's climate and
influence of low-frequency variability modes, J. Climate, 28,
4545–4560, https://doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-14-00697.1, 2015.
Vincent, L. A., Zhang, X., Mekis, E., Wan, H., and Bush, E. J.: Changes in
Canada's climate: Trends in indices based on daily temperature and
precipitation data, Atmos.-Ocean, 56, 332–349,
https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.2018.1514579, 2018.
Wang, X. L.: Climatology and trends in some adverse and fair weather
conditions in Canada, 1953–2004, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D09105,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006155, 2006.
Wasserstein, R. L., Schirm, A. L., and Lazar, N. A.: Moving to a world beyond
“p < 0.05”, Am. Stat., 73, 1–19, 2019.
Wexler, R., Reed, R. J., and Honig, J.: Atmospheric cooling by melting snow,
B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 35, 48–51,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-35.2.48, 1954.
WMO (World Meteorological Organization): International Cloud Atlas Manual on the
Observation of Clouds and Other Meteors, (WMO-No. 407), available at:
https://cloudatlas.wmo.int/home.html (last access: 1 April 2020), 2017.
Yang, D., Goodison, B. E., Metcalfe, J. R., Golubev, V. S., Elomaa, E.,
Gunther, T., Bates, R., Pangburn, T., Hanson, C., Emerson, D., Copaciu, V.,
and Milkovic, J.: Accuracy of Tretyakov precipitation gauge: Result of WMO
intercomparison, Hydrol. Process., 9, 877–895,
https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.3360090805, 1995.
Yang, D., Goodison, B. E., Metcalfe, J. R., Golubev, V. S., Bates, R.,
Pangburn, T., and Hanson, C. L.: Accuracy of NWS 8” standard nonrecording
precipitation gauge: Results and application of WMO Intercomparison, J.
Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 15, 54–68,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015<0054:AONSNP>2.0.CO;2, 1998.
Zhang, X., Vincent, L. A.,
Hogg, W., and Niitsoo, A.: Temperature and precipitation trends in Canada
during the 20th century, Atmos.-Ocean, 38, 395–429,
https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.2000.9649654, 2000.
Zhang, X., Brown, R., Vincent, L., Skinner, W., Feng, Y., and Mekis, É.: Canadian climate trends, 1950–2007, Canadian biodiversity: Ecosystem status and trends 2010, (Technical Thematic Report No. 5), Canadian Councils of Resource Ministers, Ottawa, Ontario, iv +21 pp., available at: http://www.biodivcanada.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=137E1147-0 (last access: 2 April 2020), 2011.
Short summary
This article provides a Canada-wide analysis of near-0°C temperature conditions (±2°C) using hourly surface temperature and precipitation type observations from 92 locations for the 1981–2011 period. Higher annual occurrences were found in Atlantic Canada, although high values also occur in other regions. Trends of most indicators show little or no change despite a systematic warming over Canada. A higher than expected tendency for near-0°C conditions was also found at some stations.
This article provides a Canada-wide analysis of near-0°C temperature conditions (±2°C) using...