Articles | Volume 18, issue 5
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-1561-2014
© Author(s) 2014. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-1561-2014
© Author(s) 2014. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
06 May 2014
Research article |
| 06 May 2014
Selection of intense rainfall events based on intensity thresholds and lightning data in Switzerland
L. Gaál
Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovakia
now at: Technical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
P. Molnar
Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
J. Szolgay
Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovakia
Related authors
No articles found.
Mosisa Tujuba Wakjira, Nadav Peleg, Johan Six, and Peter Molnar
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2024-37, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2024-37, 2024
Revised manuscript under review for HESS
Short summary
Short summary
While rainwater is a key resource in crop production, its productivity faces challenges from climate change. Using a simple model of climate, water, and crop yield interactions, we found that rain-scarce croplands in Ethiopia are likely to experience decreases in crop yield during the main growing season, primarily due to future temperature increases. These insights are crucial for shaping future water management plans, policies, and informed decision-making for climate adaptation.
Jessica Droujko, Srividya Hariharan Sudha, Gabriel Singer, and Peter Molnar
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 881–897, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-881-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-881-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We combined data from satellite images with data measured from a kayak in order to understand the propagation of fine sediment in the Vjosa River. We were able to find some storm-activated and some permanent sources of sediment. We also estimated how much fine sediment is carried into the Adriatic Sea by the Vjosa River: approximately 2.5 Mt per year, which matches previous findings. With our work, we hope to show the potential of open-access satellite images.
Tobias Siegfried, Aziz Ul Haq Mujahid, Beatrice Sabine Marti, Peter Molnar, Dirk Nikolaus Karger, and Andrey Yakovlev
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-520, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-520, 2023
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
Our study investigates climate change impacts on water resources in Central Asia's high-mountain regions. Using new data and a stochastic soil moisture model, we found increased precipitation and higher temperatures in the future, leading to higher water discharge despite decreasing glacier melt contributions. These findings are crucial for understanding and preparing for climate change effects on Central Asia's water resources, with further research needed on extreme weather event impacts.
Qinggang Gao, Christian Zeman, Jesus Vergara-Temprado, Daniela C. A. Lima, Peter Molnar, and Christoph Schär
Weather Clim. Dynam., 4, 189–211, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-189-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-189-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We developed a vortex identification algorithm for realistic atmospheric simulations. The algorithm enabled us to obtain a climatology of vortex shedding from Madeira Island for a 10-year simulation period. This first objective climatological analysis of vortex streets shows consistency with observed atmospheric conditions. The analysis shows a pronounced annual cycle with an increasing vortex shedding rate from April to August and a sudden decrease in September.
Fabian Walter, Elias Hodel, Erik S. Mannerfelt, Kristen Cook, Michael Dietze, Livia Estermann, Michaela Wenner, Daniel Farinotti, Martin Fengler, Lukas Hammerschmidt, Flavia Hänsli, Jacob Hirschberg, Brian McArdell, and Peter Molnar
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 4011–4018, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-4011-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-4011-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Debris flows are dangerous sediment–water mixtures in steep terrain. Their formation takes place in poorly accessible terrain where instrumentation cannot be installed. Here we propose to monitor such source terrain with an autonomous drone for mapping sediments which were left behind by debris flows or may contribute to future events. Short flight intervals elucidate changes of such sediments, providing important information for landscape evolution and the likelihood of future debris flows.
Silvan Ragettli, Tabea Donauer, Peter Molnar, Ron Delnoije, and Tobias Siegfried
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 797–815, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-797-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-797-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents a novel methodology to identify and quantitatively analyze deposition and erosion patterns in ephemeral ponds or in perennial lakes with strong water level fluctuations. We apply this method to unravel the water and sediment balance of Lac Wégnia, a designated Ramsar site in Mali. The study can be a showcase for monitoring Sahelian lakes using remote sensing data, as it sheds light on the actual drivers of change in Sahelian lakes.
Elena Leonarduzzi, Brian W. McArdell, and Peter Molnar
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 5937–5950, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5937-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5937-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Landslides are a dangerous natural hazard affecting alpine regions, calling for effective warning systems. Here we consider different approaches for the prediction of rainfall-induced shallow landslides at the regional scale, based on open-access datasets and operational hydrological forecasting systems. We find antecedent wetness useful to improve upon the classical rainfall thresholds and the resolution of the hydrological model used for its estimate to be a critical aspect.
Jacob Hirschberg, Alexandre Badoux, Brian W. McArdell, Elena Leonarduzzi, and Peter Molnar
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 2773–2789, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-2773-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-2773-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Debris-flow prediction is often based on rainfall thresholds, but uncertainty assessments are rare. We established rainfall thresholds using two approaches and find that 25 debris flows are needed for uncertainties to converge in an Alpine basin and that the suitable method differs for regional compared to local thresholds. Finally, we demonstrate the potential of a statistical learning algorithm to improve threshold performance. These findings are helpful for early warning system development.
Marius G. Floriancic, Wouter R. Berghuijs, Tobias Jonas, James W. Kirchner, and Peter Molnar
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 5423–5438, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-5423-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-5423-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Low river flows affect societies and ecosystems. Here we study how precipitation and potential evapotranspiration shape low flows across a network of 380 Swiss catchments. Low flows in these rivers typically result from below-average precipitation and above-average potential evapotranspiration. Extreme low flows result from long periods of the combined effects of both drivers.
Elena Leonarduzzi and Peter Molnar
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 2905–2919, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2905-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2905-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Landslides are a natural hazard that affects alpine regions. Here we focus on rainfall-induced shallow landslides and one of the most widely used approaches for their predictions: rainfall thresholds. We design several comparisons utilizing a landslide database and rainfall records in Switzerland. We find that using daily rather than hourly rainfall might be a better option in some circumstances, and mean annual precipitation and antecedent wetness can improve predictions at the regional scale.
Giulia Battista, Peter Molnar, and Paolo Burlando
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 619–635, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-619-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-619-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Suspended sediment load in rivers is highly uncertain because of spatial and temporal variability. By means of a hydrology and suspended sediment transport model, we investigated the effect of spatial variability in precipitation and surface erodibility on catchment sediment fluxes in a mesoscale river basin.
We found that sediment load depends on the spatial variability in erosion drivers, as this affects erosion rates and the location and connectivity to the channel of the erosion areas.
Nadav Peleg, Chris Skinner, Simone Fatichi, and Peter Molnar
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 17–36, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-17-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-17-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Extreme rainfall is expected to intensify with increasing temperatures, which will likely affect rainfall spatial structure. The spatial variability of rainfall can affect streamflow and sediment transport volumes and peaks. The sensitivity of the hydro-morphological response to changes in the structure of heavy rainfall was investigated. It was found that the morphological components are more sensitive to changes in rainfall spatial structure in comparison to the hydrological components.
Anna Costa, Daniela Anghileri, and Peter Molnar
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 3421–3434, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-3421-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-3421-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We analyse the control of hydroclimatic factors – erosive rainfall, ice melt, and snowmelt – on suspended sediment concentration (SSC) of Alpine catchments regulated by hydropower, and we develop a multivariate hydroclimatic–informed rating curve. We show that while erosive rainfall determines the variability of SSC, ice melt generates the highest contribution to SSC per unit of runoff. This approach allows the exploration of climate–driven changes in fine sediment dynamics in Alpine catchments.
Anna Costa, Peter Molnar, Laura Stutenbecker, Maarten Bakker, Tiago A. Silva, Fritz Schlunegger, Stuart N. Lane, Jean-Luc Loizeau, and Stéphanie Girardclos
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 509–528, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-509-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-509-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We explore the signal of a warmer climate in the suspended-sediment dynamics of a regulated and human-impacted Alpine catchment. We demonstrate that temperature-driven enhanced melting of glaciers, which occurred in the mid-1980s, played a dominant role in suspended sediment concentration rise, through increased runoff from sediment-rich proglacial areas, increased contribution of sediment-rich meltwater, and increased sediment supply in proglacial areas due to glacier recession.
Anna Costa, Daniela Anghileri, and Peter Molnar
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2017-419, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2017-419, 2017
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Short summary
Short summary
We develop a novel rating curve to simulate suspended sediment concentration (SSC) in Alpine catchments (Process-Based Rating Curve, PBRC). Instead of relating SSC to discharge, as in traditional approaches, we model SSC by differentiating the potential contributions of the main erosional and transport processes of Alpine environments: erosive rainfall, snowmelt, and icemelt. We show that PBRC significantly improves predictions of SSC, especially when analysing climate-induced changes.
Nadav Peleg, Frank Blumensaat, Peter Molnar, Simone Fatichi, and Paolo Burlando
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 1559–1572, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1559-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1559-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated the relative contribution of the spatial versus climatic rainfall variability for flow peaks by applying an advanced stochastic rainfall generator to simulate rainfall for a small urban catchment and simulate flow dynamics in the sewer system. We found that the main contribution to the total flow variability originates from the natural climate variability. The contribution of spatial rainfall variability to the total flow variability was found to increase with return periods.
Søren Thorndahl, Thomas Einfalt, Patrick Willems, Jesper Ellerbæk Nielsen, Marie-Claire ten Veldhuis, Karsten Arnbjerg-Nielsen, Michael R. Rasmussen, and Peter Molnar
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 1359–1380, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1359-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1359-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This paper reviews how weather radar data can be used in urban hydrological applications. It focuses on three areas of research: (1) temporal and spatial resolution of rainfall data, (2) rainfall estimation, radar data adjustment and data quality, and (3) nowcasting of radar rainfall and real-time applications. Moreover, the paper provides examples of urban hydrological applications which can benefit from radar rainfall data in comparison to tradition rain gauge measurements of rainfall.
Claudio I. Meier, Jorge Sebastián Moraga, Geri Pranzini, and Peter Molnar
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 4177–4190, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-4177-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-4177-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We show that the derived distribution approach is able to characterize the interannual variability of precipitation much better than fitting a probabilistic model to annual rainfall totals, as long as continuously gauged data are available. The method is a useful tool for describing temporal changes in the distribution of annual rainfall, as it works for records as short as 5 years, and therefore does not require any stationarity assumption over long periods.
Bahareh Kianfar, Simone Fatichi, Athansios Paschalis, Max Maurer, and Peter Molnar
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2016-536, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2016-536, 2016
Revised manuscript has not been submitted
Short summary
Short summary
Raingauge observations show a large variability in extreme rainfall depths in the current climate. Climate model predictions of extreme rainfall in the future have to be compared with this natural variability. Our work shows that predictions of future extreme rainfall often lie within the range of natural variability of present-day climate, and therefore predictions of change are highly uncertain. We demonstrate this by using stochastic rainfall models and 10-min rainfall data in Switzerland.
Matteo Saletti, Peter Molnar, Marwan A. Hassan, and Paolo Burlando
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 549–566, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-549-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-549-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents a new reduced-complexity model with few parameters linked to basic physical processes, which aims to reproduce the transport of sediment as bed load and the formation and stability of channel morphology in steep mountain streams. The model is able to simulate the formation and stability of steps, bed structures commonly encountered in steep channels, by assuming that their formation is due to intense sediment transport during high flows causing jamming of particles.
Ján Szolgay, Ladislav Gaál, Tomáš Bacigál, Silvia Kohnová, Kamila Hlavčová, Roman Výleta, and Günter Blöschl
Proc. IAHS, 373, 61–67, https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-373-61-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-373-61-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The design of hydraulic structures where storage is involved, requires estimates of joint probability distribution of flood volumes and flood peaks. The problem of choosing a joint distribution was so far approached more from a statistical point of view. In the paper the suitability of various copula models of this relationships was analysed with a particular focus on the type and seasonality of flood generation processes in a regional context.
J. Hall, B. Arheimer, G. T. Aronica, A. Bilibashi, M. Boháč, O. Bonacci, M. Borga, P. Burlando, A. Castellarin, G. B. Chirico, P. Claps, K. Fiala, L. Gaál, L. Gorbachova, A. Gül, J. Hannaford, A. Kiss, T. Kjeldsen, S. Kohnová, J. J. Koskela, N. Macdonald, M. Mavrova-Guirguinova, O. Ledvinka, L. Mediero, B. Merz, R. Merz, P. Molnar, A. Montanari, M. Osuch, J. Parajka, R. A. P. Perdigão, I. Radevski, B. Renard, M. Rogger, J. L. Salinas, E. Sauquet, M. Šraj, J. Szolgay, A. Viglione, E. Volpi, D. Wilson, K. Zaimi, and G. Blöschl
Proc. IAHS, 370, 89–95, https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-370-89-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-370-89-2015, 2015
J. Szolgay, L. Gaál, S. Kohnová, K. Hlavčová, R. Výleta, T. Bacigál, and G. Blöschl
Proc. IAHS, 370, 183–188, https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-370-183-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-370-183-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
The design of hydraulic structures where storage is involved, requires estimates of flood volumes related to flood peaks. The problem was so far approached more from a statistical point of view. In the paper it was attempted to better understand the hydrological factors controlling this relationship. The suitability of various copula models of the relationships between flood peaks and flood volumes was analysed with a particular focus on the type and seasonality of flood generation processes.
P. Molnar, S. Fatichi, L. Gaál, J. Szolgay, and P. Burlando
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 1753–1766, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-1753-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-1753-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
We present an empirical study of the rates of increase in precipitation intensity with air temperature using high-resolution 10 min precipitation records in Switzerland. We estimated the scaling rates for lightning (convective) and non-lightning event subsets and show that scaling rates are between 7 and 14%/C for convective rain and that mixing of storm types exaggerates the relations to air temperature. Doubled CC rates reported by other studies are an exception in our data set.
K. Džubáková, P. Molnar, K. Schindler, and M. Trizna
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 195–208, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-195-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-195-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
We use a high-resolution ground-based camera system with near-infrared sensitivity to quantify the response of riparian vegetation in an Alpine river to floods with the use of vegetation indices. The vegetation showed both damage and enhancement within 1 week following floods, with a selective impact determined by pre-flood vegetation vigour, morphological setting and intensity of flood forcing. The tested vegetation indices differed in the direction of predicted change in the range 0.7-35.8%.
J. Hall, B. Arheimer, M. Borga, R. Brázdil, P. Claps, A. Kiss, T. R. Kjeldsen, J. Kriaučiūnienė, Z. W. Kundzewicz, M. Lang, M. C. Llasat, N. Macdonald, N. McIntyre, L. Mediero, B. Merz, R. Merz, P. Molnar, A. Montanari, C. Neuhold, J. Parajka, R. A. P. Perdigão, L. Plavcová, M. Rogger, J. L. Salinas, E. Sauquet, C. Schär, J. Szolgay, A. Viglione, and G. Blöschl
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 2735–2772, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-2735-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-2735-2014, 2014
Related subject area
Subject: Engineering Hydrology | Techniques and Approaches: Stochastic approaches
Uncertainty estimation of regionalised depth–duration–frequency curves in Germany
FarmCan: a physical, statistical, and machine learning model to forecast crop water deficit for farms
Identifying sensitivities in flood frequency analyses using a stochastic hydrologic modeling system
Characteristics and process controls of statistical flood moments in Europe – a data-based analysis
Objective functions for information-theoretical monitoring network design: what is “optimal”?
Stochastic simulation of streamflow and spatial extremes: a continuous, wavelet-based approach
Numerical investigation on the power of parametric and nonparametric tests for trend detection in annual maximum series
Spatially dependent flood probabilities to support the design of civil infrastructure systems
Technical note: Stochastic simulation of streamflow time series using phase randomization
Multivariate hydrologic design methods under nonstationary conditions and application to engineering practice
Ensemble modeling of stochastic unsteady open-channel flow in terms of its time–space evolutionary probability distribution – Part 1: theoretical development
Ensemble modeling of stochastic unsteady open-channel flow in terms of its time–space evolutionary probability distribution – Part 2: numerical application
Characterizing the spatial variations and correlations of large rainstorms for landslide study
Assessment of extreme flood events in a changing climate for a long-term planning of socio-economic infrastructure in the Russian Arctic
Dealing with uncertainty in the probability of overtopping of a flood mitigation dam
Flood frequency analysis of historical flood data under stationary and non-stationary modelling
Towards modelling flood protection investment as a coupled human and natural system
A bivariate return period based on copulas for hydrologic dam design: accounting for reservoir routing in risk estimation
Examination of homogeneity of selected Irish pooling groups
Estimation of high return period flood quantiles using additional non-systematic information with upper bounded statistical models
Design flood hydrographs from the relationship between flood peak and volume
Introducing empirical and probabilistic regional envelope curves into a mixed bounded distribution function
HESS Opinions "A random walk on water"
Bora Shehu and Uwe Haberlandt
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 2075–2097, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-2075-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-2075-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Design rainfall volumes at different duration and frequencies are necessary for the planning of water-related systems and facilities. As the procedure for deriving these values is subjected to different sources of uncertainty, here we explore different methods to estimate how precise these values are for different duration, locations and frequencies in Germany. Combining local and spatial simulations, we estimate tolerance ranges from approx. 10–60% for design rainfall volumes in Germany.
Sara Sadri, James S. Famiglietti, Ming Pan, Hylke E. Beck, Aaron Berg, and Eric F. Wood
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 5373–5390, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-5373-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-5373-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A farm-scale hydroclimatic machine learning framework to advise farmers was developed. FarmCan uses remote sensing data and farmers' input to forecast crop water deficits. The 8 d composite variables are better than daily ones for forecasting water deficit. Evapotranspiration (ET) and potential ET are more effective than soil moisture at predicting crop water deficit. FarmCan uses a crop-specific schedule to use surface or root zone soil moisture.
Andrew J. Newman, Amanda G. Stone, Manabendra Saharia, Kathleen D. Holman, Nans Addor, and Martyn P. Clark
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 5603–5621, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5603-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5603-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study assesses methods that estimate flood return periods to identify when we would obtain a large flood return estimate change if the method or input data were changed (sensitivities). We include an examination of multiple flood-generating models, which is a novel addition to the flood estimation literature. We highlight the need to select appropriate flood models for the study watershed. These results will help operational water agencies develop more robust risk assessments.
David Lun, Alberto Viglione, Miriam Bertola, Jürgen Komma, Juraj Parajka, Peter Valent, and Günter Blöschl
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 5535–5560, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5535-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5535-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate statistical properties of observed flood series on a European scale. There are pronounced regional patterns, for instance: regions with strong Atlantic influence show less year-to-year variability in the magnitude of observed floods when compared with more arid regions of Europe. The hydrological controls on the patterns are quantified and discussed. On the European scale, climate seems to be the dominant driver for the observed patterns.
Hossein Foroozand and Steven V. Weijs
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 831–850, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-831-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-831-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In monitoring network design, we have to decide what to measure, where to measure, and when to measure. In this paper, we focus on the question of where to measure. Past literature has used the concept of information to choose a selection of locations that provide maximally informative data. In this paper, we look in detail at the proper mathematical formulation of the information concept as an objective. We argue that previous proposals for this formulation have been needlessly complicated.
Manuela I. Brunner and Eric Gilleland
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 3967–3982, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-3967-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-3967-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Stochastically generated streamflow time series are used for various water management and hazard estimation applications. They provide realizations of plausible but yet unobserved streamflow time series with the same characteristics as the observed data. We propose a stochastic simulation approach in the frequency domain instead of the time domain. Our evaluation results suggest that the flexible, continuous simulation approach is valuable for a diverse range of water management applications.
Vincenzo Totaro, Andrea Gioia, and Vito Iacobellis
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 473–488, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-473-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-473-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We highlight the need for power evaluation in the application of null hypothesis significance tests for trend detection in extreme event analysis. In a wide range of conditions, depending on the underlying distribution of data, the test power may reach unacceptably low values. We propose the use of a parametric approach, based on model selection criteria, that allows one to choose the null hypothesis, to select the level of significance, and to check the test power using Monte Carlo experiments.
Phuong Dong Le, Michael Leonard, and Seth Westra
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 4851–4867, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-4851-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-4851-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
While conventional approaches focus on flood designs at individual locations, there are many situations requiring an understanding of spatial dependence of floods at multiple locations. This research describes a new framework for analyzing flood characteristics across civil infrastructure systems, including conditional and joint probabilities of floods. This work leads to a new flood estimation paradigm, which focuses on the risk of the entire system rather than each system element in isolation.
Manuela I. Brunner, András Bárdossy, and Reinhard Furrer
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 3175–3187, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-3175-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-3175-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This study proposes a procedure for the generation of daily discharge data which considers temporal dependence both within short timescales and across different years. The simulation procedure can be applied to individual and multiple sites. It can be used for various applications such as the design of hydropower reservoirs, the assessment of flood risk or the assessment of drought persistence, and the estimation of the risk of multi-year droughts.
Cong Jiang, Lihua Xiong, Lei Yan, Jianfan Dong, and Chong-Yu Xu
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1683–1704, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1683-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1683-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We present the methods addressing the multivariate hydrologic design applied to the engineering practice under nonstationary conditions. A dynamic C-vine copula allowing for both time-varying marginal distributions and a time-varying dependence structure is developed to capture the nonstationarities of multivariate flood distribution. Then, the multivariate hydrologic design under nonstationary conditions is estimated through specifying the design criterion by average annual reliability.
Alain Dib and M. Levent Kavvas
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 1993–2005, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-1993-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-1993-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
A new method is proposed to solve the stochastic unsteady open-channel flow system in only one single simulation, as opposed to the many simulations usually done in the popular Monte Carlo approach. The derivation of this new method gave a deterministic and linear Fokker–Planck equation whose solution provided a powerful and effective approach for quantifying the ensemble behavior and variability of such a stochastic system, regardless of the number of parameters causing its uncertainty.
Alain Dib and M. Levent Kavvas
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2007–2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2007-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2007-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
A newly proposed method is applied to solve a stochastic unsteady open-channel flow system (with an uncertain roughness coefficient) in only one simulation. After comparing its results to those of the Monte Carlo simulations, the new method was found to adequately predict the temporal and spatial evolution of the probability density of the flow variables of the system. This revealed the effectiveness, strength, and time efficiency of this new method as compared to other popular approaches.
Liang Gao, Limin Zhang, and Mengqian Lu
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 4573–4589, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4573-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4573-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Rainfall is the primary trigger of landslides. However, the rainfall intensity is not uniform in space, which causes more landslides in the area of intense rainfall. The primary objective of this paper is to quantify spatial correlation characteristics of three landslide-triggering large storms in Hong Kong. The spatial maximum rolling rainfall is represented by a trend surface and a random field of residuals. The scales of fluctuation of the residuals are found between 5 km and 30 km.
Elena Shevnina, Ekaterina Kourzeneva, Viktor Kovalenko, and Timo Vihma
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 2559–2578, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-2559-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-2559-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents the probabilistic approach to evaluate design floods in a changing climate, adapted in this case to the northern territories. For the Russian Arctic, the regions are delineated, where it is suggested to correct engineering hydrological calculations to account for climate change. An example of the calculation of a maximal discharge of 1 % exceedance probability for the Nadym River at Nadym is provided.
Eleni Maria Michailidi and Baldassare Bacchi
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 2497–2507, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-2497-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-2497-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
In this research, we explored how the sampling uncertainty of flood variables (flood peak, volume, etc.) can reflect on a structural variable, which in our case was the maximum water level (MWL) of a reservoir controlled by a dam. Next, we incorporated additional information from different sources for a better estimation of the uncertainty in the probability of exceedance of the MWL. Results showed the importance of providing confidence intervals in the risk assessment of a structure.
M. J. Machado, B. A. Botero, J. López, F. Francés, A. Díez-Herrero, and G. Benito
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 2561–2576, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2561-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2561-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
A flood frequency analysis using a 400-year historical flood record was carried out using a stationary model (based on maximum likelihood estimators) and a non-stationary model that incorporates external covariates (climatic and environmental). The stationary model was successful in providing an average discharge around which value flood quantiles estimated by non-stationary models fluctuate through time.
P. E. O'Connell and G. O'Donnell
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 155–171, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-155-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-155-2014, 2014
A. I. Requena, L. Mediero, and L. Garrote
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 3023–3038, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-3023-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-3023-2013, 2013
S. Das and C. Cunnane
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 15, 819–830, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-15-819-2011, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-15-819-2011, 2011
B. A. Botero and F. Francés
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 2617–2628, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-2617-2010, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-2617-2010, 2010
L. Mediero, A. Jiménez-Álvarez, and L. Garrote
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 2495–2505, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-2495-2010, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-2495-2010, 2010
B. Guse, Th. Hofherr, and B. Merz
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 2465–2478, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-2465-2010, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-2465-2010, 2010
D. Koutsoyiannis
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 585–601, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-585-2010, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-585-2010, 2010
Cited articles
Badoux, A., Turowski, J. M., Mao, L., Mathys, N., and Rickenmann, D.: Rainfall intensity–duration thresholds for bedload transport initiation in small Alpine watersheds, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 12, 3091–3108, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-3091-2012, 2012.
Bárdossy, A. and Pegram, G. G. S.: Copula based multisite model for daily precipitation simulation, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2299–2314, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-13-2299-2009, 2009.
Barnolas, M., Atencia, A., Llasat, M. C., and Rigo, T.: Characterization of a Mediterranean flash flood event using rain gauges, radar, GIS and lightning data, Adv. Geosci., 17, 35–41, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-17-35-2008, 2008.
Begueria, S.: Validation and evaluation of predictive models in hazard assessment and risk management, Nat. Hazards, 37, 315–329, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-005-5182-6, 2006.
Berg, P., Moseley, C., and Haerter, J. O.: Strong increase in convective precipitation in response to higher temperatures, Nat. Geosci., 6, 181–185, https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO1731, 2013.
Blöschl, G.: Flood warning – on the value of local information, International Journal of River Basin Management, 6, 41–50, https://doi.org/10.1080/15715124.2008.9635336, 2008.
Borga, M., Anagnostou, E. N., Blöschl, G., and Creutin, J.-D.: Flash flood forecasting, warning and risk management: the HYDRATE project, Environ. Sci. Policy, 14, 834–844, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2011.05.017, 2011.
Bracken, L. J., Cox, N. J., and Shannon, J.: The relationship between rainfall inputs and flood generation in south-east Spain, Hydrol. Process., 22, 683–696, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6641, 2008.
Brunetti, M. T., Peruccacci, S., Rossi, M., Luciani, S., Valigi, D., and Guzzetti, F.: Rainfall thresholds for the possible occurrence of landslides in Italy, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 10, 447–458, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-10-447-2010, 2010.
Chvila, B., Sevruk, B., and Ondras, M.: The wind-induced loss of thunderstorm precipitation measurements, Atmos. Res., 77, 29–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2004.11.032, 2005.
Defer, E., Lagouvardos, K., and Kotroni, V.: Lightning activity in the eastern Mediterranean region, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D24210, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005710, 2005.
Dub, O. and Němec, J.: Hydrologie, Technický průvodce, SNTL, Prague, 380 pp., 1969.
Dunkerley, D. L.: Rain event properties in nature and in rainfall simulation experiments: a comparative review with recommendations for increasingly systematic study and reporting, Hydrol. Process., 22, 4415–4435, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7045, 2008.
Dunkerley, D. L.: How do the rain rates of sub-event intervals such as the maximum 5- and 15-min rates (I5 or I30) relate to the properties of the enclosing rainfall event?, Hydrol. Process., 24, 2425–2439, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7650, 2010.
Dutton, E. J. and Dougherty, H. T.: Year-to-year variability of rainfall for microwave applications in the USA, IEEE T. Commun., 5, 829–832, https://doi.org/10.1109/TCOM.1979.1094464, 1979.
Gaál, L., Szolgay, J., Kohnová, S., Parajka, J., Merz, R., Viglione, A., and Blöschl, G.: Flood timescales: Understanding the interplay of climate and catchment processes through comparative hydrology, Water Resour. Res., 48, W04511, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011509, 2012.
Grace, R. A. and Eagleson, P. S.: A model for generating synthetic sequences of short-time-interval rainfall depths, in: Proceedings of International Hydrology Symposium, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA, 268–276, 1967.
Genest, Ch. and Favre, A.-C.: Everything you always wanted to know about copula modeling but were afraid to ask, J. Hydrol. Eng., 12, 347–368, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0699(2007)12:4(347), 2007.
Grungle, B. and Krider, P.: Cloud-to-ground ligtning and surface rainfall in warm-season Florida thunderstorms, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D19203, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006802, 2006.
Hlavcova, H., Kohnova, S., Kubes, R., Szolgay, J., and Zvolensky, M.: An empirical method for estimating future flood risks for flood warnings, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 9, 431–448, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-9-431-2005, 2005.
Houze, R. A.: Stratiform precipitation in regions of convection: A meteorological paradox?, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 78, 2179–2196, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<2179:SPIROC>2.0.CO;2, 1997.
Jensen, H., Lang, H., and Rinderknecht, J.: Extreme point rainfall of varying duration and return period 1901–1970, in: Hydrological Atlas of Switzerland, Plate 2.4.2, Federal Office for the Environment FOEN, Berne, Switzerland, 1997.
Kao, S.-C. and Govindaraju, R. S.: A bivariate frequency analysis of extreme rainfall with implications for design, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D13119, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD008522, 2007.
Katsanos, D., Lagouvardos, K., Kotroni, V., and Argiriou, A.: Combined analysis of rainfall and lightning data produced by mesoscale systems in the central and eastern Mediterranean, Atmos. Res., 83, 55–63, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2006.01.012, 2007.
Katz, R. W., Parlange, M. B., and Naveau, P.: Statistics of extremes in hydrology, Adv. Water Resour., 25, 1287–1304, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1708(02)00056-8, 2002.
Kinnell, P. I. A.: Event erosivity factor and errors in erosion predictions by some empirical models, Aust. J. Soil Res., 41, 991–1003, https://doi.org/10.1071/SR02123, 2003.
Kochtubajda, B., Burrows, W. R., Liu, A., and Patten, J. K.: Surface rainfall and cloud-to-ground lightning relationships in Canada, Atmos. Ocean, 51, 226–238, https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.2013.780154, 2013.
Kotroni, V. and Lagouvardos, K.: Lightning occurrence in relation with elevation, terrain slope, and vegetation cover in the Mediterranean, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D21118, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010605, 2008.
Koutroulis, A. G., Grillakis, M. G., Tsanis, I. K., Kotroni, V., and Lagouvardos, K.: Lightning activity, rainfall and flash flooding – occasional or interrelated events? A case study in the island of Crete, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 12, 881–891, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-881-2012, 2012.
Koutsoyiannis, D., Kozonis, D., and Manetas, A.: A mathematical framework for studying rainfall intesity-duration-frequency relationships, J. Hydrol., 206, 118–135, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(98)00097-3, 1998.
Kyselý, J., Gaál, L., Picek, J., and Schindler, M.: Return periods of the August 2010 heavy precipitation in northern Bohemia (Czech Republic) in present climate and under climate change, Journal of Water and Climate Change, 4, 265–286, https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2013.051, 2013.
Lang, S., Tao, W. K., Simpson, J., and Ferrier, B.: Modeling of convective-stratiform precipitation processes: Sensitivity to partitioning methods, J. Appl. Meteorol., 42, 505–527, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2003)042<0505:MOCSPP>2.0.CO;2, 2003.
Llasat, M. C.: An objective classification of rainfall events on the basis of their convective features: application to rainfall intensity in the Northeast of Spain, Int. J. Climatol., 21, 1385–1400, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.692, 2001.
Llasat, M. C.: High magnitude storms and floods, in: The Physical Geography of the Mediterranean, edited by: Woodward, J. C., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 513–540, 2009.
Llasat, M. C., Rigo, T., Ceperuelo, M., and Barrera, A.: Estimation of convective precipitation: the meteorological radar versus an automatic rain gauge network, Adv. Geosci., 2, 103–109, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-2-103-2005, 2005.
Llasat, M. C., Ceperuelo, M., and Rigo, T.: Rainfall regionalization on the basis of the precipitation convective features using a raingauge network and weather radar observations, Atmos. Res., 83, 415–426, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2005.08.014, 2007.
Lloyd, C. R.: The temporal distribution of Amazonian rainfall and its implications for forest interception, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 116, 1487–1494, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711649612, 1990.
Merz, R. and Blöschl, G.: A process typology of regional floods, Water Resour. Res., 39, 1340, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002WR001952, 2003.
Molnar, P. and Burlando, P.: Variability in the scale properties of high-resolution precipitation data in the Alpine climate of Switzerland, Water Resour. Res., 44, W10404, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006142, 2008.
Overeem, A., Buishand, A., and Holleman, I.: Rainfall depth-duration-frequency curves and their uncertainties, J. Hydrol., 348, 124–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.09.044, 2008.
Overeem, A., Buishand, A., and Holleman, I.: Extreme rainfall analysis and estimation of depth-duration-frequency curves using weather radar, Water Resour. Res., 45, W10424, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR007869, 2009.
Panziera, L. and Germann, U.: The relation between airflow and orographic precipitation on the southern side of the Alps as revealed by weather radar, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 136, 222–238, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.544, 2010.
Paschalis, A., Molnar, P., and Burlando, P.: Temporal dependence structure in weights in a multiplicative cascade model for precipitation, Water Resour. Res., 48, W01501, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011WR010679, 2012.
Pešice, P., Sulan, J., and \vRezáčová, D.: Convection precursors in the Czech territory, Atmos. Res., 67–69, 523–532, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-8095(03)0007, 2003.
Petersen, W. A. and Rutledge, S. A.: On the relationship between cloud-to-ground lightning and convective rainfall, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 14025–14040, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JD02064, 1998.
Pineda, N., Rigo, T., Bech, J., and Soler, X.: Lightning and precipitation relationship in summer thunderstorms: Case studies in the North Western Mediterranean region, Atmos. Res., 85, 159–170, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2006.12.004, 2007.
Price, C. and Federmesser, B.: Lightning-rainfall relationships in Mediterranean winter thunderstorms, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L07813, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024794, 2006.
Price, C., Yair, Y., Mugnai, A., Lagouvardos, K., Llasat, M. C., Michaelides, S., Dayan, U., Dietrich, S., Di Paola, F., Galanti, E., Garrote, L., Harats, N., Katsanos, D., Kohn, M., Kotroni, V., Llasat-Botija, M., Lynn, B., Mediero, L., Morin, E., Nicolaides, K., Rozalis, S., Savvidou, K., and Ziv, B.: Using lightning data to better understand and predict flash floods in the Mediterranean, Surv. Geophys., 32, 733–751, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-011-9146-y, 2011a.
Price, C., Yair, Y., Mugnai, A., Lagouvardos, K., Llasat, M. C., Michaelides, S., Dayan, U., Dietrich, S., Galanti, E., Garrote, L., Harats, N., Katsanos, D., Kohn, M., Kotroni, V., Llasat-Botija, M., Lynng, B., Mediero, L., Morin, E., Nicolaides, K., Rozalis, S., Savvidou, K., and Ziv, B.: The FLASH Project: using lightning data to better understand and predict flash floods, Environmental Science and Policy, 14, 898–911, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2011.03.004, 2011b.
Reinhold, F.: Regenspenden in Deutschland (Grundwerte für die Entwässerungstechnik, GE 1940), Archiv für Wasserwirtschaft, Heft Nr. 56, Reichsverband der Deutschen Wasserwirtschaft, Berlin, 1940.
Restrepo-Posada, P. J. and Eagleson, P. S.: Identification of independent rainstorms, J. Hydrol., 55, 303–319, https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(82)90136-6, 1982.
Rigo, T. and Llasat, M. C.: A methodology for the classification of convective structures using meteorological radar: Application to heavy rainfall events on the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 4, 59–68, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-4-59-2004, 2004.
Rigo, T. and Llasat, M. C.: Analysis of mesoscale convective systems in Catalonia using meteorological radar for the period 1996–2000, Atmos. Res., 83, 458–472, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2005.10.016, 2007.
Rivas Soriano, L. and De Pablo, F.: Analysis of convective precipitation in the western Mediterranean Sea through the use of cloud-to-ground lightning, Atmos. Res., 66, 189–202, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-8095, 2003.
Rivas Soriano, L., De Pablo, F., and Garcia Diez, E.: Relationship between convective precipitation and cloud-to-ground lightning in the Iberian peninsula, Mon. Weather Rev., 129, 2998–3003, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<2998:RBCPAC>2.0.CO;2, 2001.
Ruiz-Leo, A. M., Hernandez, E., Queralt, S., and Maqueda, G.: Convective and stratiform precipitation trends in the Spanish Mediterranean coast, Atmos. Res., 119, 46–55, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.07.019, 2013.
Rulfová, Z. and Kyselý, J.: Disaggregating convective and stratiform precipitation from station weather data, Atmos. Res., 134, 100–115, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2013.07.015, 2013.
Serinaldi, F.: Analysis of inter-gauge dependence by Kendall's tau, upper tail dependence coefficient, and 2-copulas with application to rainfall fields, Stoch. Env. Res. Risk A., 22, 671–688, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-007-0176-4, 2008.
Schüepp, M. and Gensler, G.: Klimaregionen der Schweiz, in: Die Beobachtungsnetze der Schweizerischen Meteorologischen Anstalt, Konzept 1980, edited by: Müller, G., Arbeitsberichte der Schweizerischen Meteorologischen Anstalt Nr. 93, Anhang Ib. Zürich, 1980.
Tadesse, A. and Anagnostou, E. N.: Characterization of warm season convective systems over US in terms of cloud to ground lightning, cloud kinematics, and precipitation, Atmos. Res., 91, 36–46, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.05.009, 2009.
Tapia, A., Smith, J. A., and Dixon, M.: Estimation of convective rainfall from lighnting observations, J. Appl. Meteorol., 37, 1497–1509, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1998)037<1497:EOCRFL>2.0.CO;2, 1998.
Tremblay, A.: The stratiform and convective components of surface precipitation, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 1513–1528, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS3411.1, 2005.
Vandenberghe, S., Verhoest, N. E. C., and De Baets, B.: Fitting bivariate copulas to the dependence structure between storm characteristics: A detailed analysis based on 105 year 10 min rainfall, Water Resour. Res., 46, W01512, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR007857, 2010.
Velikanov, M. A.: Gidrologia suši, Gidrometeoidzat, Leningrad, 1964.
Vörösmarty, Ch. J., de Guenni, L. B., Wollheim, W. M., Pellerin, B., Bjerklie, D., Cardoso, M., D'Almeida, C., Green, P., and Colon, L.: Extreme rainfall, vulnerability and risk: a continental-scale assessment for South America, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. A, 371, 20120408, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2012.0408, 2013.
Watson, P. A., Gunes, M., Potter, B. A., Sathiaseelan, V., and Leitas, D. J.: Development of a climatic map of rainfall attenuation for Europe, Final Report of the European Space Agency, ESTEC CONTR. No. 4162/79/NL, Postgraduate School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Bradford, UK, 1982.
Wilhelmi, O. V. and Morrs, R. E.: Integrated analysis of societal vulnerability in an extreme precipitation event: A Fort Collins case study, Environ. Sci. Policy, 26, 49–62, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.07.005, 2013.
Winsemius, H. C., Van Beek, L. P. H., Jongman, B., Ward, P. J., and Bouwman, A.: A framework for global river flood risk assessments, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 1871–1892, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-1871-2013, 2013.
Wischmeier, W. H. and Smith, D. D.: Predicting rainfall erosion losses-a guide to conservation planning, Agriculture Handbook, No. 537, US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, 1978.
Wussow, G.: Untere Grenzwerte dichter Regenfälle, Meteorol. Z., 39, 173–178, 1922.
Yair, Y., Lynn, B., Price, C., Kotroni, V., Lagouvardos, K., Morin, E., Mugnai, A., and Llasat, M. C.: Predicting the potential for lightning activity in Mediterranean storms based on the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model dynamic and microphysical fields, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D04205, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010868, 2010.
Zeng, N., Shuttleworth, J. W., and Gash, J. H. C.: Influence of temporal variability of rainfall on interception loss. Part I. Point analysis, J. Hydrol., 228, 228–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(00)00140-2, 2000.
Zimmer, M., Craig, G. C., Keil, C., and Wernli, H.: Classification of precipitation events with a convective response timescale and their forecasting characteristics, Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L05802, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL046199, 2011.
