Articles | Volume 20, issue 8
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-3419-2016
© Author(s) 2016. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-3419-2016
© Author(s) 2016. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
26 Aug 2016
Research article |
| 26 Aug 2016
Stream restoration and sewers impact sources and fluxes of water, carbon, and nutrients in urban watersheds
Michael J. Pennino
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
US EPA, Office of Research and Development, National Health and
Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division,
Corvallis, OR, USA
Sujay S. Kaushal
University of Maryland, Department of Geology and Earth Systems Science
Interdisciplinary Center, College Park, MD, USA
Paul M. Mayer
US EPA, Office of Research and Development, National Health and
Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division,
Corvallis, OR, USA
Ryan M. Utz
Chatham University, Falk School of Sustainability, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Curtis A. Cooper
Washington Department of Ecology, Environmental Assessment Program,
Olympia, WA, USA
Related authors
Rose M. Smith, Sujay S. Kaushal, Jake J. Beaulieu, Michael J. Pennino, and Claire Welty
Biogeosciences, 14, 2831–2849, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-2831-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-2831-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Urban streams receive excess nitrogen from numerous sources. We hypothesized that variations in carbon availability and subsurface infrastructure influence emissions of N2O and other greenhouse gases (CH4 and CO2) as excess N is utilized by microbes. We sampled eight streams draining four categories of stormwater and sanitary infrastructure. Dissolved nitrogen concentration was the strongest predictor of CO2 and N2O concentrations, while C : N ratio was the strongest predictor of CH4 in streams.
Michael J. Pennino, Sujay S. Kaushal, Sudhir N. Murthy, Joel D. Blomquist, Jeff C. Cornwell, and Lora A. Harris
Biogeosciences, 13, 6211–6228, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-6211-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-6211-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The results of this paper report the analysis of the fate and transport of wastewater and anthropogenic nitrogen along the Potomac River estuary, from Washington D.C. to the Chesapeake Bay. In conjunction with a mass balance approach, nitrate isotopes were used to estimate fluxes and trace the sources and transformations of N along the estuary. This study shows that estuaries have a large capacity to transform N inputs, but with large seasonal variability due to hydrological extremes.
Rose M. Smith, Sujay S. Kaushal, Jake J. Beaulieu, Michael J. Pennino, and Claire Welty
Biogeosciences, 14, 2831–2849, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-2831-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-2831-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Urban streams receive excess nitrogen from numerous sources. We hypothesized that variations in carbon availability and subsurface infrastructure influence emissions of N2O and other greenhouse gases (CH4 and CO2) as excess N is utilized by microbes. We sampled eight streams draining four categories of stormwater and sanitary infrastructure. Dissolved nitrogen concentration was the strongest predictor of CO2 and N2O concentrations, while C : N ratio was the strongest predictor of CH4 in streams.
Michael J. Pennino, Sujay S. Kaushal, Sudhir N. Murthy, Joel D. Blomquist, Jeff C. Cornwell, and Lora A. Harris
Biogeosciences, 13, 6211–6228, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-6211-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-6211-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The results of this paper report the analysis of the fate and transport of wastewater and anthropogenic nitrogen along the Potomac River estuary, from Washington D.C. to the Chesapeake Bay. In conjunction with a mass balance approach, nitrate isotopes were used to estimate fluxes and trace the sources and transformations of N along the estuary. This study shows that estuaries have a large capacity to transform N inputs, but with large seasonal variability due to hydrological extremes.
S. Duan and S. S. Kaushal
Biogeosciences, 12, 7331–7347, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-7331-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-7331-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
There has been increased salinization of fresh water over decades during the urban evolution of watersheds. This study finds that salinization consistently increased sediment releases of labile organic carbon and total dissolved Kjeldahl nitrogen and sediment transformations of nitrate, and the salinization effects increased with percentage watershed urbanization. These findings are will be critical for forecasting changes in carbon and nutrient exports due to salt use in urban watersheds.
S.-W. Duan and S. S. Kaushal
Biogeosciences, 10, 1193–1207, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-1193-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-1193-2013, 2013
Related subject area
Subject: Biogeochemical processes | Techniques and Approaches: Instruments and observation techniques
CAMELS-Chem: augmenting CAMELS (Catchment Attributes and Meteorology for Large-sample Studies) with atmospheric and stream water chemistry data
Hydrological connectivity controls dissolved organic carbon exports in a peatland-dominated boreal catchment stream
Technical note: Testing the effect of different pumping rates on pore-water sampling for ions, stable isotopes, and gas concentrations in the hyporheic zone
Geophysically based analysis of breakthrough curves and ion exchange processes in soil
Spatio-temporal controls of C–N–P dynamics across headwater catchments of a temperate agricultural region from public data analysis
Pesticide peak concentration reduction in a small vegetated treatment system controlled by chemograph shape
On the role of operational dynamics in biogeochemical efficiency of a soil aquifer treatment system
Hydrological tracers for assessing transport and dissipation processes of pesticides in a model constructed wetland system
Assessing inter-annual and seasonal patterns of DOC and DOM quality across a complex alpine watershed underlain by discontinuous permafrost in Yukon, Canada
A small-volume multiplexed pumping system for automated, high-frequency water chemistry measurements in volume-limited applications
The importance of small artificial water bodies as sources of methane emissions in Queensland, Australia
Nitrogen attenuation, dilution and recycling in the intertidal hyporheic zone of a subtropical estuary
Decoupling of dissolved organic matter patterns between stream and riparian groundwater in a headwater forested catchment
Non-destructive estimates of soil carbonic anhydrase activity and associated soil water oxygen isotope composition
Carbon isotopes of dissolved inorganic carbon reflect utilization of different carbon sources by microbial communities in two limestone aquifer assemblages
The influence of riparian evapotranspiration on stream hydrology and nitrogen retention in a subhumid Mediterranean catchment
Redox controls on methane formation, migration and fate in shallow aquifers
Interacting effects of climate and agriculture on fluvial DOM in temperate and subtropical catchments
Chemical and U–Sr isotopic variations in stream and source waters of the Strengbach watershed (Vosges mountains, France)
Spatiotemporal characterization of dissolved carbon for inland waters in semi-humid/semi-arid region, China
Impacts of tropical cyclones on hydrochemistry of a subtropical forest
Acid-base characteristics of the Grass Pond watershed in the Adirondack Mountains of New York State, USA: interactions among soil, vegetation and surface waters
Catchment features controlling nitrogen dynamics in running waters above the tree line (central Italian Alps)
Dissolved organic carbon characteristics in surface ponds from contrasting wetland ecosystems: a case study in the Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China
Hydrochemical processes in lowland rivers: insights from in situ, high-resolution monitoring
Heterogeneity of soil carbon pools and fluxes in a channelized and a restored floodplain section (Thur River, Switzerland)
Gary Sterle, Julia Perdrial, Dustin W. Kincaid, Kristen L. Underwood, Donna M. Rizzo, Ijaz Ul Haq, Li Li, Byung Suk Lee, Thomas Adler, Hang Wen, Helena Middleton, and Adrian A. Harpold
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 28, 611–630, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-611-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-611-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We develop stream water chemistry to pair with the existing CAMELS (Catchment Attributes and Meteorology for Large-sample Studies) dataset. The newly developed dataset, termed CAMELS-Chem, includes common stream water chemistry constituents and wet deposition chemistry in 516 catchments. Examples show the value of CAMELS-Chem to trend and spatial analyses, as well as its limitations in sampling length and consistency.
Antonin Prijac, Laure Gandois, Pierre Taillardat, Marc-André Bourgault, Khawla Riahi, Alex Ponçot, Alain Tremblay, and Michelle Garneau
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 3935–3955, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3935-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3935-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The peatland dissolved organic carbon (DOC) lost through aquatic exports can offset a significant proportion of the ecosystem carbon balance. Hence, we propose a new approach to better estimate the DOC exports based on the specific contribution of a boreal peatland (Canada) during periods of high flow. In addition, we studied the relations between DOC concentrations and stream discharge in order to better understand the DOC export mechanisms under contrasted hydrometeorological conditions.
Tamara Michaelis, Anja Wunderlich, Thomas Baumann, Juergen Geist, and Florian Einsiedl
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 3769–3782, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3769-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3769-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Riverbeds are densely populated with microorganisms which catalyze ecologically relevant processes. To study this complex zone, we tested pore-water extraction with microfilter tubes. The method was found to be suitable for the measurement of dissolved solutes but less so for gases. The pumping rate during sample extraction strongly influenced gas analyses in the samples. The combination with an optical oxygen sensor and a temperature monitoring system was found to be highly valuable.
Shany Ben Moshe, Pauline Kessouri, Dana Erlich, and Alex Furman
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 3041–3052, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-3041-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-3041-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A non-invasive geophysical method (spectral induced polarization, SIP) was used to characterize and predict solute transport patterns in soil columns. Our results show that SIP-based breakthrough curve (BTC) analysis is superior over conventional outflow-based analysis as it can characterize system heterogeneity and is superior over electrical-conductivity-based analysis as it is capable of distinguishing between the adsorption end-members without the need for sampling.
Stella Guillemot, Ophelie Fovet, Chantal Gascuel-Odoux, Gérard Gruau, Antoine Casquin, Florence Curie, Camille Minaudo, Laurent Strohmenger, and Florentina Moatar
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 2491–2511, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-2491-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-2491-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the drivers of spatial variations in stream water quality in poorly studied headwater catchments and includes multiple elements involved in major water quality issues, such as eutrophication. We used a regional public dataset of monthly stream water concentrations monitored for 10 years over 185 agricultural catchments. We found a spatial and seasonal opposition between carbon and nitrogen concentrations, while phosphorus concentrations showed another spatial pattern.
Jan Greiwe, Oliver Olsson, Klaus Kümmerer, and Jens Lange
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 497–509, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-497-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-497-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated the linkage between contaminant mobilization in catchments and their mitigation in vegetated treatment systems (VTSs). We identified different patterns in chemographs recorded at the inlet of a VTS, indicating distinct mobilization patterns that were associated with similar source areas, transport pathways, and discharge dynamics. Peak concentration reduction in the VTS was strongest for sharp-peaked chemographs, suggesting that dispersion was the principle mitigation process.
Shany Ben Moshe, Noam Weisbrod, Felix Barquero, Jana Sallwey, Ofri Orgad, and Alex Furman
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 417–426, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-417-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-417-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In soil aquifer treatment (a soil-based treatment for wastewater), infiltration ponds are operated in flooding and drying cycles, and the reclaimed water may be used for irrigation. We tested the effect of hydraulic operation on the biogeochemical system via long-column experiments. We found that longer drying periods not only were beneficial for the upper area of the profile but also increased the volume of the system that maintained oxidizing conditions.
Elena Fernández-Pascual, Marcus Bork, Birte Hensen, and Jens Lange
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 41–60, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-41-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-41-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In this study we explore the use of hydrological tracers coupled with high vertical resolution sampling and monitoring to evaluate temporal and spatial mechanisms that dominate transport and dissipation of pesticides in a laboratory-scale constructed wetland. Our results reveal different transport vectors and dissipation pathways of solutes over time and space that are influenced by the constructional design, the presence of plants and the alternation of different hydrological conditions.
Nadine J. Shatilla and Sean K. Carey
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 3571–3591, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-3571-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-3571-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
High-latitude permafrost environments are changing rapidly due impacts and feedbacks associated with climate warming. We used streamflow and DOC concentrations as well as export estimates and optical indices to better understand how different surface water bodies transport and process dissolved material over multiple seasons and years. Information on DOM quality provides insight into organic material sources and possible composition changes related to higher summer rainfall in summer/fall.
Bryan M. Maxwell, François Birgand, Brad Smith, and Kyle Aveni-Deforge
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 5615–5628, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-5615-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-5615-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
A multiplexed pumping system (MPS) for obtaining continuous water quality data at multiple locations was previously reported. The existing design was not practical for sampling water in volume-limited applications such as small mesocosms or porewater sampling. This paper discusses the design and performance of a small-volume MPS and illustrates two applications, showing spatial variability in replicate in situ mesocosms and short-circuiting in a woodchip bioreactor using porewater sampling.
Alistair Grinham, Simon Albert, Nathaniel Deering, Matthew Dunbabin, David Bastviken, Bradford Sherman, Catherine E. Lovelock, and Christopher D. Evans
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 5281–5298, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-5281-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-5281-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Artificial water bodies are a major source of methane and an important contributor to flooded land greenhouse gas emissions. Past studies focussed on large water supply or hydropower reservoirs with small artificial water bodies (ponds) almost completely ignored. This regional study demonstrated ponds accounted for one-third of flooded land surface area and emitted over 1.6 million t CO2 eq. yr−1 (10 % of land use sector emissions). Ponds should be included in regional GHG inventories.
Sébastien Lamontagne, Frédéric Cosme, Andrew Minard, and Andrew Holloway
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 4083–4096, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-4083-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-4083-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The dual nitrate isotope technique is one of the most commonly used approaches to study the origin and fate of N introduced in aquifers. In this study, we first demonstrate a large attenuation of groundwater N at a former industrial site, especially at the interface between surface and groundwater. We also provide evidence for a switch in the oxygen isotopic signature of groundwater due to this extensive N attenuation. This could be used to better quantify N attenuation processes in aquifers.
Susana Bernal, Anna Lupon, Núria Catalán, Sara Castelar, and Eugènia Martí
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 1897–1910, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-1897-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-1897-2018, 2018
Sam P. Jones, Jérôme Ogée, Joana Sauze, Steven Wohl, Noelia Saavedra, Noelia Fernández-Prado, Juliette Maire, Thomas Launois, Alexandre Bosc, and Lisa Wingate
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 6363–6377, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-6363-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-6363-2017, 2017
Martin E. Nowak, Valérie F. Schwab, Cassandre S. Lazar, Thomas Behrendt, Bernd Kohlhepp, Kai Uwe Totsche, Kirsten Küsel, and Susan E. Trumbore
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 4283–4300, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4283-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4283-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
In the present study we combined measurements of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) isotopes with a set of different geochemical and microbiological methods in order to get a comprehensive view of biogeochemical cycling and groundwater flow in two limestone aquifer assemblages. This allowed us to understand interactions and feedbacks between microbial communities, their carbon sources, and water chemistry.
Anna Lupon, Susana Bernal, Sílvia Poblador, Eugènia Martí, and Francesc Sabater
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 3831–3842, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-3831-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-3831-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The influence of riparian evapotranspiration (ET) on stream hydrology and chemistry is poorly understood. We investigated temporal changes in riparian ET, stream discharge and nutrient chemistry along a Mediterranean catchment. Despite being a small component of annual water budgets (4.5 %), our results highlight that riparian ET drives stream and groundwater hydrology in Mediterranean catchments and, further, question the potential of the riparian zone as a natural filter of nitrogen loads.
Pauline Humez, Bernhard Mayer, Michael Nightingale, Veith Becker, Andrew Kingston, Stephen Taylor, Guy Bayegnak, Romain Millot, and Wolfram Kloppmann
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 2759–2777, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-2759-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-2759-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Development of unconventional energy resources if often associated with public concerns regarding potential contamination of shallow groundwater due to methane leakage. We combined chemical and isotopic analyses of gas and water samples obtained from shallow aquifers in Alberta (Canada) to assess baseline methane sources and found that > 67 % of the samples contained biogenic methane formed in situ in the aquifers. There was no evidence of deep thermogenic methane migration into shallow aquifers.
D. Graeber, G. Goyenola, M. Meerhoff, E. Zwirnmann, N. B. Ovesen, M. Glendell, J. Gelbrecht, F. Teixeira de Mello, I. González-Bergonzoni, E. Jeppesen, and B. Kronvang
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 2377–2394, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2377-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2377-2015, 2015
M. C. Pierret, P. Stille, J. Prunier, D. Viville, and F. Chabaux
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 3969–3985, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-3969-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-3969-2014, 2014
K. S. Song, S. Y. Zang, Y. Zhao, L. Li, J. Du, N. N. Zhang, X. D. Wang, T. T. Shao, Y. Guan, and L. Liu
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 4269–4281, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-4269-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-4269-2013, 2013
C. T. Chang, S. P. Hamburg, J. L. Hwong, N. H. Lin, M. L. Hsueh, M. C. Chen, and T. C. Lin
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 3815–3826, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-3815-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-3815-2013, 2013
K. M. McEathron, M. J. Mitchell, and L. Zhang
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 2557–2568, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-2557-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-2557-2013, 2013
R. Balestrini, C. Arese, M. Freppaz, and A. Buffagni
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 989–1001, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-989-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-989-2013, 2013
L. L. Wang, C. C. Song, and G. S. Yang
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 371–378, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-371-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-371-2013, 2013
A. J. Wade, E. J. Palmer-Felgate, S. J. Halliday, R. A. Skeffington, M. Loewenthal, H. P. Jarvie, M. J. Bowes, G. M. Greenway, S. J. Haswell, I. M. Bell, E. Joly, A. Fallatah, C. Neal, R. J. Williams, E. Gozzard, and J. R. Newman
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 16, 4323–4342, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-16-4323-2012, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-16-4323-2012, 2012
E. Samaritani, J. Shrestha, B. Fournier, E. Frossard, F. Gillet, C. Guenat, P. A. Niklaus, N. Pasquale, K. Tockner, E. A. D. Mitchell, and J. Luster
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 15, 1757–1769, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-15-1757-2011, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-15-1757-2011, 2011
Cited articles
4TU.Centre: Stream restoration and sanitary infrastructure alter sources and fluxes of water, carbon, and nutrients in urban watersheds – synthesis file, available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.4121/uuid:363c6b7d-09dc-4a96-8d19-3eaa6b9a7841, last access: 22 August 2016.
Aitkenhead-Peterson, J. A., Alexander, J. E., and Clair, T. A.: Dissolved organic carbon and dissolved organic nitrogen export from forested watersheds in Nova Scotia: Identifying controlling factors, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 19, GB4016, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GB002438, 2005.
Arango, C. P. and Tank, J. L.: Land use influences the spatiotemporal controls on nitrification and denitrification in headwater streams, J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc., 27, 90–107, 2008.
Baker, A.: Fluorescence excitation-emission matrix characterization of some sewage-impacted rivers, Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 948–953, 2001.
Baker, D. B., Richards, R. P., Loftus, T. T., and Kramer, J. W.: A new flashiness index: Characteristics and applications to midwestern rivers and streams, J. Am. Water Resour. As., 40, 503–522, 2004.
Banach, K., Banach, A. M., Lamers, L. P. M., De Kroon, H., Bennicelli, R. P., Smits, A. J. M., and Visser, E. J. W.: Differences in flooding tolerance between species from two wetland habitats with contrasting hydrology: implications for vegetation development in future floodwater retention areas, Ann. Botany-London, 103, 341–351, 2009.
Bernhardt, E. S., Palmer, M. A., Allan, J. D., Alexander, G., Barnas, K., Brooks, S., Carr, J., Clayton, S., Dahm, C., Follstad-Shah, J., Galat, D., Gloss, S., Goodwin, P., Hart, D., Hassett, B., Jenkinson, R., Katz, S., Kondolf, G. M., Lake, P. S., Lave, R., Meyer, J. L., O'Donnell, T. K., Pagano, L., Powell, B., and Sudduth, E.: Ecology – Synthesizing US river restoration efforts, Science, 308, 636–637, 2005.
Bernhardt, E. S., Band, L. E., Walsh, C. J., and Berke, P. E.: Understanding, managing, and minimizing urban impacts on surface water nitrogen loading, Ann. Ny. Acad. Sci., 1134, 61–96, 2008.
Bettez, N. D. and Groffman, P. M.: Denitrification Potential in Stormwater Control Structures and Natural Riparian Zones in an Urban Landscape, Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 10909–10917, 2012.
Bhaskar, A. S. and Welty, C.: Water Balances along an Urban-to-Rural Gradient of Metropolitan Baltimore, 2001–2009, Environ. Eng. Geosci., 18, 37–50, 2012.
Bohnke, R., Geyer, S., and Kowski, P.: Using environmental isotopes H-2 and O-18 for identification of infiltration processes in floodplain ecosystems of the river Elbe, Isot. Environ. Healt. S., 38, 1–13, 2002.
Bowes, M. J., House, W. A., Hodgkinson, R. A., and Leach, D. V.: Phosphorus-discharge hysteresis during storm events along a river catchment: the River Swale, UK, Water Res., 39, 751–762, 2005.
Boyer, K. B. and Kieser, M. S.: Uban stormwater mangement-an MS4 success story for western Michigan University, J. Green Build., 7, 28–39, 2012.
Brabec, E., Schulte, S., and Richards, P. L.: Impervious surfaces and water quality: A review of current literature and its implications for watershed planning, J. Plan. Lit., 16, 499–514, 2002.
Buda, A. R. and DeWalle, D. R.: Dynamics of stream nitrate sources and flow pathways during stormflows on urban, forest and agricultural watersheds in central Pennsylvania, USA, Hydrol. Process., 23, 3292–3305, 2009.
Bukaveckas, P. A.: Effects of channel restoration on water velocity, transient storage, and nutrient uptake in a channelized stream, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, 1570–1576, 2007.
Bullock, S. H., Escoto-Rodriguez, M., Smith, S. V., and Hinojosa, A.: Carbon Flux of an Urban System in Mexico, J. Ind. Ecol., 15, 512–526, 2011.
Burns, D. A., Boyer, E. W., Elliott, E. M., and Kendall, C.: Sources and Transformations of Nitrate from Streams Draining Varying Land Uses: Evidence from Dual Isotope Analysis, J. Environ. Qual., 38, 1149–1159, 2009.
Butturini, A. and Sabater, F.: Importance of transient storage zones for ammonium and phosphate retention in a sandy-bottom Mediterranean stream, Freshwater Biol., 41, 593–603, 1999.
Carey, R. O., Wollheim, W. M., Mulukutla, G. K., and Mineau, M. M.: Characterizing Storm-Event Nitrate Fluxes in a Fifth Order Suburbanizing Watershed Using In Situ Sensors, Environ. Sci. Technol., 48, 7756–7765, 2014.
Casciotti, K. L., Sigman, D. M., Hastings, M. G., Bohlke, J. K., and Hilkert, A.: Measurement of the oxygen isotopic composition of nitrate in seawater and freshwater using the denitrifier method, Anal. Chem., 74, 4905–4912, 2002.
Cendon, D. I., Larsen, J. R., Jones, B. G., Nanson, G. C., Rickleman, D., Hankin, S. I., Pueyo, J. J., and Maroulis, J.: Freshwater recharge into a shallow saline groundwater system, Cooper Creek floodplain, Queensland, Australia, J. Hydrol., 392, 150–163, 2010.
Coble, P. G.: Characterization of marine and terrestrial DOM in seawater using excitation emission matrix spectroscopy, Mar. Chem., 51, 325–346, 1996.
Cohn, T. A.: Recent advances in statistical methods for the estimation of sediment and nutrient transport in rivers, Rev. Geophys., 33, 1117–1123, 1995.
Cooper, C., Mayer, P. M., and Faulkner, B.: Effects of road salts on groundwater and surface water dynamics of sodium and chloride in an urban restored stream, Biogeochemistry, 121, 149–161, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-014-9968-z, 2014.
Cory, R. M. and McKnight, D. M.: Fluorescence spectroscopy reveals ubiquitous presence of oxidized and reduced quinones in dissolved organic matter, Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 8142–8149, 2005.
Cory, R. M., Miller, M. P., McKnight, D. M., Guerard, J. J., and Miller, P. L.: Effect of instrument-specific response on the analysis of fulvic acid fluorescence spectra, Limnol. Oceanogr.-Meth., 8, 67–78, 2010.
Craig, Harmon: Isotopic Variations in Meteoric Waters, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 133, 1702–1703, 1961.
Darcan, S., Unak, P., Yalman, O., Lambrecht, F. Y., Biber, F. Z., Goksen, D., and Coker, M.: Determination of iodine concentration in urine by isotope dilution analysis and thyroid volume of school children in the west coast of Turkey after mandatory salt iodization, Clin. Endocrinology, 63, 543–548, 2005.
Dean, H. T., Arnold, F. A., Jay, P., and Knutson, J. W.: Studies on mass control of dental caries through fluoridation of the public water supply, Public Health Rep., 65, 1403–1408, 1950.
Dillon, P. J. and Molot, L. A.: Effect of landscape form on export of dissolved organic carbon, iron, and phosphorus from forested stream catchments, Water Resour. Res., 33, 2591–2600, 1997.
Divers, M. T., Elliott, E. M., and Bain, D. J.: Constraining Nitrogen Inputs to Urban Streams from Leaking Sewers Using Inverse Modeling: Implications for Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen (DIN) Retention in Urban Environments, Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 1816–1823, 2013.
Divers, M. T., Elliott, E. M., and Bain, D. J.: Quantification of Nitrate Sources to an Urban Stream Using Dual Nitrate Isotopes, Environ. Sci. Technol., 48, 10580–10587, 2014.
Doheny, E. J., Starsoneck, R. J., Striz, E. A., and Mayer., P. M.: Watershed characteristics and pre-restoration surface-water hydrology of Minebank Run, Baltimore County, Maryland, water years 2002–04, USGS Scientific Investigations Rep. 2006–5179, USGS, Reston, VA, USA, 2006.
Duan, S. W., Kaushal, S. S., Groffman, P. M., Band, L. E., and Belt, K. T.: Phosphorus export across an urban to rural gradient in the Chesapeake Bay watershed, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 117, 2012.
Duan, S. W., Delaney-Newcomb, K., Kaushal, S. S., Findlay, S. E. G., and Belt, K. T.: Potential effects of leaf litter on water quality in urban watersheds, Biogeochemistry, 121, 61–80, 2014.
Duerksen, C. J., Snyder, C., and ebrary Inc.: Nature-friendly communities habitat protection and land use, Island Press,, Washington, DC, USA, 2005.
Efron, B. and Tibshirani, R.: Bootstrap methods for standard errors, confidence intervals, and other measures of statistical accuracy, Stat. Sci., 1986, 54–75, 1986.
Ekklesia, E., Shanahan, P., Chua, L. H. C., and Eikaas, H. S.: Temporal variation of faecal indicator bacteria in tropical urban storm drains, Water Res., 68, 171–181, 2015.
Emerson, C. H., Welty, C., and Traver, R. G.: Watershed-scale evaluation of a system of storm water detention basins, J. Hydrol. Eng., 10, 237–242, 2005.
Filoso, S. and Palmer, M. A.: Assessing stream restoration effectiveness at reducing nitrogen export to downstream waters, Ecol. Appl., 21, 1989–2006, 2011.
Gat, J. R.: Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in the hydrologic cycle, Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sci., 24, 225–262, 1996.
Gehr, R. and Leduc, R.: Assessing effluent fluoride concentrations following physicochemical waste-water treatment, Can. J. Civil Eng., 19, 649–659, 1992.
Gilbert, R. O.: 6.5 Sen's Nonparametric Estimator of Slope, in: Statistical Methods for Environmental Pollution Monitoring, John Wiley and Sons, Canada, 1987.
Goetz, S. J., Wright, R. K., Smith, A. J., Zinecker, E., and Schaub, E.: IKONOS imagery for resource management: Tree cover, impervious surfaces, and riparian buffer analyses in the mid-Atlantic region, Remote Sens. Environ., 88, 195–208, 2003.
Goldman, J. H., Rounds, S. A., and Needoba, J. A.: Applications of Fluorescence Spectroscopy for Predicting Percent Wastewater in an Urban Stream, Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 4374–4381, 2012.
Greenman-Pedersen Inc.: Minebank Run II stream restoration design report and 100-year floodplain impact analysis, Appendices, Laurel, MD, USA, 10 pp., 2003.
Groffman, P. M., Law, N. L., Belt, K. T., Band, L. E., and Fisher, G. T.: Nitrogen fluxes and retention in urban watershed ecosystems, Ecosystems, 7, 393–403, 2004.
Groffman, P. M., Dorsey, A. M., and Mayer, P. M.: N processing within geomorphic structures in urban streams, J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc., 24, 613–625, 2005.
Hall, S. J., Weintraub, S. R., Eiriksson, D., Brooks, P. D., Baker, M. A., Bowen, G. J., and Bowling, D. R.: Stream Nitrogen Inputs Reflect Groundwater Across a Snowmelt-Dominated Montane to Urban Watershed, Environ. Sci. Technol., 50, 1137–1146, 2016.
Harris, C., Oom, B. M., and Diamond, R. E.: A preliminary investigation of the oxygen and hydrogen isotope hydrology of the greater Cape Town area and an assessment of the potential for using stable isotopes as tracers, Water Sa., 25, 15–24, 1999.
Harrison, M. D., Groffman, P. M., Mayer, P. M., Kaushal, S. S., and Newcomer, T. A.: Denitrification in Alluvial Wetlands in an Urban Landscape, J. Environ. Qual., 40, 634–646, 2011.
Harrison, M. D., Miller, A. J., Groffman, P. M., Mayer, P. M., and Kaushal, S. S.: Hydrologic controls on nitrogen and phosphorous dynamics in relict oxbow wetlands adjacent to an urban restored stream, J. Am. Water Resour. As., 50, 1365–1382, 2014.
Hatt, B. E., Fletcher, T. D., Walsh, C. J., and Taylor, S. L.: The influence of urban density and drainage infrastructure on the concentrations and loads of pollutants in small streams, Environ. Manage., 34, 112–124, 2004.
Helsel, D. R. and Hirsch, R. M.: Statistical methods in water resources, Elsevier, US Geological Survey, Print ISBN: 9780444885289, Electronic ISBN: 9780080875088, 1992.
Helsel, D. R. and Hirsch, R. M.: Statistical methods in water resources. In: Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the United States Geological Survey Book 4, Hydrologic Analysis and Interpretation, US Geological Survey, 2002.
Hester, E. T. and Gooseff, M. N.: Moving Beyond the Banks: Hyporheic Restoration Is Fundamental to Restoring Ecological Services and Functions of Streams, Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 1521–1525, 2010.
Hill, A. R.: Stream phosphorus exports from watersheds with contrasting land uses in southern Ontario, Water Resour. Bull., 17, 627–634, 1981.
Hoffmann, C. C., Kronvang, B., and Audet, J.: Evaluation of nutrient retention in four restored Danish riparian wetlands, Hydrobiologia, 674, 5–24, 2011.
Hope, D., Billett, M. F., and Cresser, M. S.: A review of the export of carbon in river water – fluxes and processes, Environ. Pollut., 84, 301–324, 1994.
Horowitz, A. J.: Monitoring suspended sediments and associated chemical constituents in urban environments: lessons from the city of Atlanta, Georgia, USA Water Quality Monitoring Program, J. Soil. Sediment., 9, 342–363, 2009.
Hudson, N., Baker, A., Ward, D., Reynlds, D. M., Brunsdon, C., Carliell-Marquet, C., and Browning, S.: Can fluorescence spectrometry be used as a surrogate for the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) test in water quality assessment? An example from South West England, Sci. Total Environ., 391, 149–158, 2008.
Huguet, A., Vacher, L., Relexans, S., Saubusse, S., Froidefond, J. M., and Parlanti, E.: Properties of fluorescent dissolved organic matter in the Gironde Estuary, Org. Geochem., 40, 706–719, 2009.
Julian, J. P. and Gardner, R. H.: Land cover effects on runoff patterns in eastern Piedmont (USA) watersheds, Hydrol. Process., 28, 1525–1538, 2014.
Kaushal, S. S. and Belt, K. T.: The urban watershed continuum: evolving spatial and temporal dimensions, Urban Ecosystems, 15, 409–435, 2012.
Kaushal, S. S., Groffman, P. M., Band, L. E., Shields, C. A., Morgan, R. P., Palmer, M. A., Belt, K. T., Swan, C. M., Findlay, S. E. G., and Fisher, G. T.: Interaction between urbanization and climate variability amplifies watershed nitrate export in Maryland, Environ. Sci. Technol., 42, 5872–5878, 2008a.
Kaushal, S. S., Groffman, P. M., Mayer, P. M., Striz, E., and Gold, A. J.: Effects of stream restoration on denitrification in an urbanizing watershed, Ecol. Appl., 18, 789–804, 2008b.
Kaushal, S. S., Groffman, P. M., Band, L. E., Elliott, E. M., Shields, C. A., and Kendall, C.: Tracking Nonpoint Source Nitrogen Pollution in Human-Impacted Watersheds, Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 8225–8232, 2011.
Kaushal, S. S., Delaney-Newcomb, K., Findlay, S. E. G., Newcomer, T. A., Duan, S., Pennino, M. J., Sivirichi, G. M., Sides-Raley, A. M., Walbridge, M. R., and Belt, K. T.: Longitudinal patterns in carbon and nitrogen fluxes and stream metabolism along an urban watershed continuum, Biogeochemistry, 121, 23–44, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-014-9979-9, 2014a.
Kaushal, S. S., Mayer, P. M., Vidon, P. G., Smith, R. M., Pennino, M. J., Duan, S., Newcomer, T. A., Welty, C., and Belt, K. T.: Land use and climate variability amplify carbon, nutrient, and contaminant pulses: a review with management implications, J. Am. Water Resour. As., 50, 585–614, 2014b.
Kaushal, S. S., McDowell, W. H., and Wollheim, W. M.: Tracking evolution of urban biogeochemical cycles: past, present, and future, Biogeochemistry, 121, 1–21, 2014c.
Kaushal, S. S., McDowell, W. H., Wollheim, W. M., Johnson, T. A. N., Mayer, P. M., Belt, K. T., and Pennino, M. J.: Urban Evolution: The Role of Water, Water, 7, 4063–4087, 2015.
Kendall, C. and Coplen, T. B.: Distribution of oxygen-18 and deuterium in river waters across the United States, Hydrol. Process., 15, 1363–1393, 2001.
Kendall, C., Elliott, E. M., and Wankel, S. D.: Tracing anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen to ecosystems, Stable Isotopes in Ecology and Environmental Science, 2nd Edition, 375–449, https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470691854.ch12, 2007.
Klocker, C. A., Kaushal, S. S., Groffman, P. M., Mayer, P. M., and Morgan, R. P.: Nitrogen uptake and denitrification in restored and unrestored streams in urban Maryland, USA, Aquat. Sci., 71, 411–424, 2009.
Konrad, C. P., Booth, D. B., and Burges, S. J.: Effects of urban development in the Puget Lowland, Washington, on interannual streamflow patterns: Consequences for channel form and streambed disturbance, Water Resour. Res., 41, W07009, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR004097, 2005.
Kurth, A.-M., Weber, C., and Schirmer, M.: How effective is river restoration in re-establishing groundwater-surface water interactions? – A case study, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 2663–2672, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2663-2015, 2015
Lamouroux, N., Gore, J. A., Lepori, F., and Statzner, B.: The ecological restoration of large rivers needs science-based, predictive tools meeting public expectations: an overview of the Rhone project, Freshwater Biol., 60, 1069–1084, 2015.
Leopold, L. B.: Hydrology for urban land planning: a guidebook on the hydrologic effects of urban land use, US Geological Survey Circular 554, US Geological Survey, Washington, DC, USA, 1968.
Lewis, D. B. and Grimm, N. B.: Hierarchical regulation of nitrogen export from urban catchments: Interactions of storms and landscapes, Ecol. Appl., 17, 2347–2364, 2007.
Li, W. H., Liu, Y. X., Wang, W., Sheng, G. P., Yu, H. Q., and Shuai, L.: Analysis of Samples from Wastewater Treatment Plant and Receiving Waters Using EEM Fluorescence Spectroscopy, Spectrosc. Spect. Anal., 35, 940–945, 2015.
Lindner, G. A. and Miller, A. J.: Numerical Modeling of Stage-Discharge Relationships in Urban Streams, J. Hydrol. Eng., 17, 590–596, 2012.
Line, D. E., White, N. M., Osmond, D. L., Jennings, G. D., and Mojonnier, C. B.: Pollutant export from various land uses in the upper Neuse River Basin, Water Environ. Res., 74, 100–108, 2002.
Lloyd, C. E. M., Freer, J. E., Collins, A. L., Johnes, P. J., and Jones, J. I.: Methods for detecting change in hydrochemical time series in response to targeted pollutant mitigation in river catchments, J. Hydrol., 514, 297–312, 2014.
Loperfido, J. V., Noe, G. B., Jarnagin, S. T., and Hogan, D. M.: Effects of distributed and centralized stormwater best management practices and land cover on urban stream hydrology at the catchment scale, J. Hydrol., 519, 2584–2595, 2014.
Mayer, P. M., Reynolds, S. K., McCutchen, M. D., and Canfield, T. J.: Meta-analysis of nitrogen removal in riparian buffers, J. Environ. Qual., 36, 1172–1180, 2007.
Mayer, P. M., Groffman, P. M., Striz, E. A., and Kaushal, S. S.: Nitrogen Dynamics at the Groundwater-Surface Water Interface of a Degraded Urban Stream, J. Environ. Qual., 39, 810–823, 2010.
McKnight, D. M., Boyer, E. W., Westerhoff, P. K., Doran, P. T., Kulbe, T., and Andersen, D. T.: Spectrofluorometric characterization of dissolved organic matter for indication of precursor organic material and aromaticity, Limnol. Oceanogr., 46, 38–48, 2001.
McMillan, S. K. and Vidon, P. G.: Taking the pulse of stream restoration practices: moving towards healthier streams, Hydrol. Process., 28, 398–400, 2014.
Meierdiercks, K. L., Smith, J. A., Baeck, M. L., and Miller, A. J.: Analyses of urban drainage network structure and its impact on hydrologic response, J. Am. Water Resour. As., 46, 932–943, 2010.
Mulholland, P. J. and Kuenzler, E. J.: Organic-carbon export from upland and forested wetland watersheds, Limnol. Oceanogr., 24, 960–966, 1979.
Mulholland, P. J., Marzolf, E. R., Webster, J. R., Hart, D. R., and Hendricks, S. P.: Evidence that hyporheic zones increase heterotrophic metabolism and phosphorus uptake in forest streams, Limnol. Oceanogr., 42, 443–451, 1997.
Newcomer, J. T. A., Kaushal, S. S., Mayer, P. M., and Grese, M.: Effects of stormwater management and stream restoration on watershed nitrogen retention., Biogeochemistry, 121, 81–106, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-014-9999-5, 2014.
Newcomer, T. A., Kaushal, S. S., Mayer, P. M., Shields, A. R., Canuel, E. A., Groffman, P. M., and Gold, A. J.: Influence of natural and novel organic carbon sources on denitrification in forest, degraded urban, and restored streams, Ecol. Monogr., 82, 449–466, 2012.
Newcomer-Johnson, T. A., Kaushal, S. S., Mayer, P. M., Smith, R. M., and Sivirichi, G. M.: Nutrient Retention in Restored Streams and Rivers: A Global Review and Synthesis, Water, 8, 116, https://doi.org/10.3390/w8040116, 2016.
Nixon, S. W., Ammerman, J. W., Atkinson, L. P., Berounsky, V. M., Billen, G., Boicourt, W. C., Boynton, W. R., Church, T. M., Ditoro, D. M., Elmgren, R., Garber, J. H., Giblin, A. E., Jahnke, R. A., Owens, N. J. P., Pilson, M. E. Q., and Seitzinger, S. P.: The fate of nitrogen and phosphorus at the land sea margin of the North Atlantic Ocean, Biogeochemistry, 35, 141–180, 1996.
NOAA: The National Atmospheric and Ocean Administration's National Climatic Data Center, available at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web, last access: 17 November 2014.
Old, G. H., Leeks, G. J. L., Packman, J. C., Smith, B. P. G., Lewis, S., and Hewitt, E. J.: River flow and associated transport of sediments and solutes through a highly urbanised catchment, Bradford, West Yorkshire, Sci. Total Environ., 360, 98–108, 2006.
Passeport, E., Vidon, P., Forshay, K. J., Harris, L., Kaushal, S. S., Kellogg, D. Q., Lazar, J., Mayer, P., and Stander, E. K.: Ecological Engineering Practices for the Reduction of Excess Nitrogen in Human-Influenced Landscapes: A Guide for Watershed Managers, Environ. Manage., 51, 392–413, 2013.
Paul, M. J. and Meyer, J. L.: Streams in the urban landscape, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 32, 333–365, 2001.
Pennino, M. J., Kaushal, S. S., Beaulieu, J. J., Mayer, P. M., and Arango, C. P.: Effects of urban stream burial on nitrogen uptake and ecosystem metabolism: implications for watershed nitrogen and carbon fluxes, Biogeochemistry, 121, 247–269, 2014.
Petrone, K. C.: Catchment export of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus across an agro-urban land use gradient, Swan-Canning River system, southwestern Australia, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 115, G01016, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JG001051, 2010.
Petrone, K. C., Fellman, J. B., Hood, E., Donn, M. J., and Grierson, P. F.: The origin and function of dissolved organic matter in agro-urban coastal streams, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 116, G01028, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JG001537, 2011.
Phillips, D. L.: Mixing models in analyses of diet using multiple stable isotopes: a critique, Oecologia, 127, 166–170, 2001.
Phillips, P. and Chalmers, A.: Wastewater effluent, combined sewer overflows, and other sources of organic compounds to lake champlain, J. Am. Water Resour. As., 45, 45–57, 2009.
Poff, N. L., Bledsoe, B. P., and Cuhaciyan, C. O.: Hydrologic variation with land use across the contiguous United States: Geomorphic and ecological consequences for stream ecosystems, Geomorphology, 79, 264–285, 2006a.
Poff, N. L., Bledsoe, B. P., and Cuhaciyan, C. O.: Hydrologic variation with land use across the contiguous United States: Geomorphic and ecological consequences for stream ecosystems, Geomorphology, 79, 264–285, 2006b.
Qian, Y., Migliaccio, K. W., Wan, Y. S., and Li, Y. C.: Trend analysis of nutrient concentrations and loads in selected canals of the southern indian river lagoon, florida, Water Air Soil Poll., 186, 195–208, 2007.
R Development Core Team: available at: http://www.R-project.org, last access: 23 September 2013.
Risch, E., Gutierrez, O., Roux, P., Boutin, C., and Corominas, L.: Life cycle assessment of urban wastewater systems: Quantifying the relative contribution of sewer systems, Water Res., 77, 35–48, 2015.
Roley, S. S., Tank, J. L., and Williams, M. A.: Hydrologic connectivity increases denitrification in the hyporheic zone and restored floodplains of an agricultural stream, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 117, G00N04, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012JG001950, 2012.
Rose, S.: The effects of urbanization on the hydrochemistry of base flow within the Chattahoochee River Basin (Georgia, USA), J. Hydrol., 341, 42–54, 2007.
Runkel, R. L., Crawford, C. G., and Cohn, T. A.: Load Estimator (LOADEST): A FORTRAN Program for Estimating Constituent Loads in Streams and Rivers. In: Techniques and Methods Book 4, US Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA, 2004.
Runkel, R. L.: Revisions to LOADEST, available at: http://water.usgs.gov/software/loadest/doc, last access: 15 March 2013.
Rustomji, P. and Wilkinson, S. N.: Applying bootstrap resampling to quantify uncertainty in fluvial suspended sediment loads estimated using rating curves, Water Resour. Res., 44, W09435, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006088, 2008.
Ryan, R. J., Welty, C., and Larson, P. C.: Variation in surface water-groundwater exchange with land use in an urban stream, J. Hydrol., 392, 1–11, 2010.
Schwartz, S. S. and Naiman, D. Q.: Bias and variance of planning level estimates of pollutant loads, Water Resour. Res., 35, 3475–3487, 1999.
Shields, C. A., Band, L. E., Law, N., Groffman, P. M., Kaushal, S. S., Savvas, K., Fisher, G. T., and Belt, K. T.: Streamflow distribution of non-point source nitrogen export from urban-rural catchments in the Chesapeake Bay watershed, Water Resour. Res., 44, W09416, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006360, 2008.
Sigman, D. M., Casciotti, K. L., Andreani, M., Barford, C., Galanter, M., and Bohlke, J. K.: A bacterial method for the nitrogen isotopic analysis of nitrate in seawater and freshwater, Anal. Chem., 73, 4145–4153, 2001.
Silva, S. R., Ging, P. B., Lee, R. W., Ebbert, J. C., Tesoriero, A. J., and Inkpen, E. L.: Forensic applications of nitrogen and oxygen isotopes in tracing nitrate sources in urban environments, Environ. Forensics, 3, 125–130, 2002.
Sivirichi, G. M., Kaushal, S. S., Mayer, P. M., Welty, C., Belt, K. T., Newcomer, T. A., Newcomb, K. D., and Grese, M. M.: Longitudinal variability in streamwater chemistry and carbon and nitrogen fluxes in restored and degraded urban stream networks, J. Environ. Monitor., 13, 288–303, 2011.
Smith, B. K. and Smith, J. A.: The Flashiest Watersheds in the Contiguous United States, J. Hydrometeorol., 16, 2365–2381, 2015.
Smith, B. K., Smith, J. A., Baeck, M., Villarini, L. G., and Wright, D. B.: Spectrum of storm event hydrologic response in urban watersheds, Water Resour. Res., 49, 2649–2663, 2013.
Smith, B. K., Smith, J. A., Baeck, M. L., and Miller, A. J.: Exploring storage and runoff generation processes for urban flooding through a physically based watershed model, Water Resour. Res., 51, 1552–1569, 2015.
Smith, R. M. and Kaushal, S. S.: Carbon cycle of an urban watershed: exports, sources, and metabolism, Biogeochemistry, 126, 173–195, 2015.
Sobota, D. J., Harrison, J. A., and Dahlgren, R. A.: Influences of climate, hydrology, and land use on input and export of nitrogen in California watersheds, Biogeochemistry, 94, 43–62, 2009.
Stolpe, B., Guo, L., Shiller, A. M., and Hassellov, M.: Size and composition of colloidal organic matter and trace elements in the Mississippi River, Pearl River and the northern Gulf of Mexico, as characterized by flow field-flow fractionation, Mar. Chem., 118, 119–128, 2010.
Strauss, E. A. and Lamberti, G. A.: Effect of dissolved organic carbon quality on microbial decomposition and nitrification rates in stream sediments, Freshwater Biol., 47, 65–74, 2002.
Sudduth, E. B., Hassett, B. A., Cada, P., and Bernhardt, E. S.: Testing the Field of Dreams Hypothesis: functional responses to urbanization and restoration in stream ecosystems, Ecol. Appl., 21, 1972–1988, 2011a.
Sudduth, E. B., Hassett, B. A., Cada, P., and Bernhardt, E. S.: Testing the Field of Dreams Hypothesis: functional responses to urbanization and restoration in stream ecosystems, Ecol. Appl., 21, 1972–1988, 2011b.
Tate, C. M. and Meyer, J. L.: The influence of hydrologic conditions and successional state on dissolved organic-carbon export from forested watersheds, Ecology, 64, 25–32, 1983.
Tran, N. H., Hu, J. Y., Li, J. H., and Ong, S. L.: Suitability of artificial sweeteners as indicators of raw wastewater contamination in surface water and groundwater, Water Res., 48, 443–456, 2014.
US EPA: Section 319.,Nonpoint Source Program Success Story: Maryland. Restoring Stream Reduces Nitrogen in an Urbanized Watershed, EPA 841-F-09-001KK, 2009.
Utz, R. M., Eshleman, K. N., and Hilderbrand, R. H.: Variation in physicochemical responses to urbanization in streams between two Mid-Atlantic physiographic regions, Ecol. Appl., 21, 402–415, 2011.
Walsh, C. J., Roy, A. H., Feminella, J. W., Cottingham, P. D., Groffman, P. M., and Morgan, R. P.: The urban stream syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure, J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc., 24, 706–723, 2005a.
Walsh, C. J., Roy, A. H., Feminella, J. W., Cottingham, P. D., Groffman, P. M., and Morgan, R. P.: The urban stream syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure, J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc., 24, 706–723, 2005b.
Waszkowiak, K. and Szymandera-Buszka, K.: Effect of storage conditions on potassium iodide stability in iodised table salt and collagen preparations, Int. J. Food Sci. Tech., 43, 895–899, 2008.
Williard, K. W. J., DeWalle, D. R., Edwards, P. J., and Sharpe, W. E.: O-18 isotopic separation of stream nitrate sources in mid-Appalachian forested watersheds, J. Hydrol., 252, 174–188, 2001.
Wolf, L., Zwiener, C., and Zemann, M.: Tracking artificial sweeteners and pharmaceuticals introduced into urban groundwater by leaking sewer networks, Sci. Total Environ., 430, 8–19, 2012.
Worrall, F., Davies, H., Bhogal, A., Lilly, A., Evans, M., Turner, K., Burt, T., Barraclough, D., Smith, P., and Merrington, G.: The flux of DOC from the UK - Predicting the role of soils, land use and net watershed losses, J. Hydrol., 448, 149–160, 2012.
Xu, Z. X., Wang, L. L., Yin, H. L., Li, H. Z., and Schwegler, B. R.: Source apportionment of non-storm water entries into storm drains using marker species: Modeling approach and verification, Ecol. Indic., 61, 546–557, 2016.
Yu, H. B., Song, Y. H., Gao, H. J., Liu, L., Yao, L. L., and Peng, J. F.: Applying fluorescence spectroscopy and multivariable analysis to characterize structural composition of dissolved organic matter and its correlation with water quality in an urban river, Environ. Earth Sci., 73, 5163–5171, 2015.
Ziemer, R. R. and Lisle, T. E.: Chapter 3. Hydrology, in: River Ecology and Management: Lessons from the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion, edited by: Naiman, R. J. and Bilby, R. E., Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA, 1998.
Zsolnay, A., Baigar, E., Jimenez, M., Steinweg, B., and Saccomandi, F.: Differentiating with fluorescence spectroscopy the sources of dissolved organic matter in soils subjected to drying, Chemosphere, 38, 45–50, 1999.
Short summary
The goal of this study was to compare how differences in urban stream restoration and sanitary infrastructure affect sources and fluxes of water and nutrients. Stream restoration reduced peak discharge and lowered nutrient export compared to unrestored streams, but was similar to a stream with upland stormwater management. The primary source of nitrate at all sites was leaky sanitary sewers, suggesting that combining stream restoration with sanitary pipe repairs may help reduce nutrient loads.
The goal of this study was to compare how differences in urban stream restoration and sanitary...
