Articles | Volume 21, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3041-2017
© Author(s) 2017. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Special issue:
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3041-2017
© Author(s) 2017. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
26 Jun 2017
Research article |
| 26 Jun 2017
Water–food–energy nexus with changing agricultural scenarios in India during recent decades
Beas Barik
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay, Mumbai – 400 076, India
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay, Mumbai – 400 076, India
Interdisciplinary Program in
Climate Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Mumbai – 400 076, India
A. Saheer Sahana
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay, Mumbai – 400 076, India
Amey Pathak
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay, Mumbai – 400 076, India
Muddu Sekhar
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore – 560 012, India
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- Water–energy nexus in Central Asia's lift irrigation schemes: Multi-level linkages A. Karimov et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111148
- Power tariffs for groundwater irrigation in India: A comparative analysis of the environmental, equity, and economic tradeoffs B. Sidhu et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104836
- Can cash incentives modify groundwater pumping behaviors? Evidence from an experiment in Punjab A. Mitra et al. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajae.12340
- Integrated analysis of increased bioenergy futures in India N. Graham et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.113125
- Assessment of Planting Method and Deficit Irrigation Impacts on Physio-Morphology, Grain Yield and Water Use Efficiency of Maize (Zea mays L.) on Vertisols of Semi-Arid Tropics H. Halli et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061094
- Integrated Effect of Deficit Irrigation and Sowing Methods on Weed Dynamics and System Productivity of Maize–Cowpea Sequence on Vertisols H. Halli et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11040808
- Assessment of flood recession farming for livelihood provision, food security and environmental sustainability in the Ganga River Basin R. Singh et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2021.100038
- Managing food at urban level through water–energy–food nexus in India: A way towards holistic sustainable development S. Singh & S. Tayal https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01580-0
- Public Preferences for Food–Energy–Water Tradeoffs in the Western U.S. B. Steel et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11195200
- Including Farmer Irrigation Behavior in a Sociohydrological Modeling Framework With Application in North India J. O'Keeffe et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018WR023038
- Sustainability Considerations in Water–Energy–Food Nexus Research in Irrigated Agriculture A. Hamidov & K. Helming https://doi.org/10.3390/su12156274
- Understanding Unsustainable Irrigation Practices in a Regionally Contested Large River Basin in Peninsular India Through the Lens of the Water–Energy–Food–Environment (WEFE) Nexus B. Gupta & J. Rowan https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111644
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- An integrative analytical framework of water-energy-food security for sustainable development at the country scale: A case study of five Central Asian countries L. Hao et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127530
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- River interlinking alters land-atmosphere feedback and changes the Indian summer monsoon T. Chauhan et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-41668-x
- A Comprehensive Evaluation of Near-Real-Time and Research Products of IMERG Precipitation over India for the Southwest Monsoon Period S. Prakash & J. Srinivasan https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13183676
- Energy conservation prospects in water intensive Paddy-Wheat cropping system for groundwater pumping in the semi-arid region of Haryana K. Singh et al. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.14815
- Are multiscale water–energy–land–food nexus studies effective in assessing agricultural sustainability? S. Gaddam & P. Sampath https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac435f
- Irrigation management or climate change ? Which is more important to cope with water shortage in the production of table grape in a Mediterranean context E. Pizarro et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2022.107467
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- Climate variability, rice production and groundwater depletion in India A. Bhargava https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaade9
- Understanding energy and groundwater irrigation nexus for sustainability over a highly irrigated ecosystem of north western India O. Singh et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01543-w
- Reflections on farmers’ social networks: a means for sustainable agricultural development? S. Chaudhuri et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00762-6
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- Integrating groundwater irrigation into hydrological simulation of India: Case of improving model representation of anthropogenic water use impact using GRACE H. Xie et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2020.100681
- Water-energy-environment nexus for global food security and ecosystem sustainability-insight from energy budgeting, optimization and artificial intelligence G. Kaur https://doi.org/10.1007/s43538-025-00404-3
- Water Savings with Irrigation Water Management at Multi-week Lead Time Using Extended Range Predictions A. Roy et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2022.100320
- Integrating optimization and damage estimation to increase economic benefit and ensure food security under seasonal land variability G. Talukdar et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115872
- Analysis of determinants of groundwater depletion in rice-wheat ecosystems of Punjab- a case of India M. Bhardwaj & T. Dutta https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04902-0
- Methodology to quantify crop, irrigation water, and energy linkages in small-holder irrigation systems N. Sawant et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2025.101719
- Groundwater Pricing in Agriculture in South Asia: Research for Practical Policy-Making S. Balasubramanya https://doi.org/10.1086/735770
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- Water-energy-food-ecosystem nexus in India—A review of relevant studies, policies, and programmes S. Jain et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2023.1128198
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- Enhancing soil structure and water dynamics through long-term mulched drip irrigation in arid reclaimed saline soils P. Luo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2025.08.007
- Exploring synergistic benefits of Water-Food-Energy Nexus through multi-objective reservoir optimization schemes T. Uen et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.172
- An analytical framework for state level water-energy-food nexus analysis in India: Insight from implemented policies K. Mondal et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.12.018
- Participatory Framing of a Conceptual Decision Model for a Hyperlocalized Food, Energy, and Water Nexus: A Case Study in Adaptive Management of Rural Water Systems in India J. Tilt et al. https://doi.org/10.1061/JWRMD5.WRENG-6154
- Examining the coupling and coordination of water-energy-food nexus at a sub-national scale in India – Insights from the perspective of Sustainable Development Goals K. Mondal et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2023.10.020
- Sustainable and resilient management scenarios for groundwater resources of the Red Sea coastal aquifers B. Niyazi et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.081
- Climate Change-Land Degradation-Food Security Nexus: Addressing India’s Challenge I. Abrol et al. https://doi.org/10.14302/issn.2639-3166.jar-19-3015
- Drivers, changes, and impacts of hydrological extremes in India: A review V. Mishra et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1742
- WEFE nexus unveiled: a comprehensive review of monitoring and modelling methods in the water-energy-food-ecosystems nexus M. Vrachioli et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ae0da3
- Factors Affecting Transboundary Water Disputes: Nile, Indus, and Euphrates–Tigris River Basins M. Azizi & J. Leandro https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040525
- Strategic assessment of groundwater potential zones: a hybrid geospatial approach H. Nazaripour et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-024-02243-x
- A minimalistic seasonal prediction model for Indian monsoon based on spatial patterns of rainfall anomalies R. Sahastrabuddhe et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4349-2
- Strongly heterogeneous patterns of groundwater depletion in Northwestern India S. Kumar Joshi et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126492
- Assessing climate change impacts on the WEF nexus: A case study of water availability, thermal energy production, and rice yield in the Kangsabati river basin K. Mondal et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egycc.2025.100221
- Synergising agricultural systems: A critical review of the interdependencies within the water-energy-food nexus for sustainable futures K. Mondal et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2025.04.004
- “More crop per drop”: Exploring India's cereal water use since 2005 B. Kayatz et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.304
- Hydrochemical evolution of groundwater in northwestern part of the Indo-Gangetic Basin, India: A geochemical and isotopic approach S. Prakash Rai et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101676
58 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Water–energy nexus in Central Asia's lift irrigation schemes: Multi-level linkages A. Karimov et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111148
- Power tariffs for groundwater irrigation in India: A comparative analysis of the environmental, equity, and economic tradeoffs B. Sidhu et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104836
- Can cash incentives modify groundwater pumping behaviors? Evidence from an experiment in Punjab A. Mitra et al. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajae.12340
- Integrated analysis of increased bioenergy futures in India N. Graham et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.113125
- Assessment of Planting Method and Deficit Irrigation Impacts on Physio-Morphology, Grain Yield and Water Use Efficiency of Maize (Zea mays L.) on Vertisols of Semi-Arid Tropics H. Halli et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061094
- Integrated Effect of Deficit Irrigation and Sowing Methods on Weed Dynamics and System Productivity of Maize–Cowpea Sequence on Vertisols H. Halli et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11040808
- Assessment of flood recession farming for livelihood provision, food security and environmental sustainability in the Ganga River Basin R. Singh et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2021.100038
- Managing food at urban level through water–energy–food nexus in India: A way towards holistic sustainable development S. Singh & S. Tayal https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01580-0
- Public Preferences for Food–Energy–Water Tradeoffs in the Western U.S. B. Steel et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11195200
- Including Farmer Irrigation Behavior in a Sociohydrological Modeling Framework With Application in North India J. O'Keeffe et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018WR023038
- Sustainability Considerations in Water–Energy–Food Nexus Research in Irrigated Agriculture A. Hamidov & K. Helming https://doi.org/10.3390/su12156274
- Understanding Unsustainable Irrigation Practices in a Regionally Contested Large River Basin in Peninsular India Through the Lens of the Water–Energy–Food–Environment (WEFE) Nexus B. Gupta & J. Rowan https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111644
- Assessing the changing trends of groundwater level with spatiotemporal scale at the northern part of Bangladesh integrating the MAKESENS and ARIMA models M. Monir et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-023-01794-3
- A comprehensive evaluation of the security of the water-energy-food systems in China K. Ju et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2023.05.001
- Representing Indian Agricultural Practices and Paddy Cultivation in the Variable Infiltration Capacity Model J. Joseph & S. Ghosh https://doi.org/10.1029/2022WR033612
- What explains rice exports? An analysis of major rice‐exporting countries P. Varma https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13482
- An integrative analytical framework of water-energy-food security for sustainable development at the country scale: A case study of five Central Asian countries L. Hao et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127530
- Removing rationing: Power consumption and groundwater monitoring in South India P. Kumar et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2025.103244
- River interlinking alters land-atmosphere feedback and changes the Indian summer monsoon T. Chauhan et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-41668-x
- A Comprehensive Evaluation of Near-Real-Time and Research Products of IMERG Precipitation over India for the Southwest Monsoon Period S. Prakash & J. Srinivasan https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13183676
- Energy conservation prospects in water intensive Paddy-Wheat cropping system for groundwater pumping in the semi-arid region of Haryana K. Singh et al. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.14815
- Are multiscale water–energy–land–food nexus studies effective in assessing agricultural sustainability? S. Gaddam & P. Sampath https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac435f
- Irrigation management or climate change ? Which is more important to cope with water shortage in the production of table grape in a Mediterranean context E. Pizarro et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2022.107467
- Trading water: virtual water flows through interstate cereal trade in India F. Harris et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abc37a
- Crop switching for water sustainability in India’s food bowl yields co-benefits for food security and farmers’ profits R. Chakraborti et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-023-00135-z
- Climate variability, rice production and groundwater depletion in India A. Bhargava https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaade9
- Understanding energy and groundwater irrigation nexus for sustainability over a highly irrigated ecosystem of north western India O. Singh et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01543-w
- Reflections on farmers’ social networks: a means for sustainable agricultural development? S. Chaudhuri et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00762-6
- Trend Analysis of Groundwater Levels and Assessment of Regional Groundwater Drought: Ghataprabha River Basin, India A. Pathak & B. Dodamani https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-018-9417-0
- Short and Medium Range Irrigation Scheduling Using Stochastic Simulation‐Optimization Framework With Farm‐Scale Ecohydrological Model and Weather Forecasts A. Roy et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR029004
- Integrating groundwater irrigation into hydrological simulation of India: Case of improving model representation of anthropogenic water use impact using GRACE H. Xie et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2020.100681
- Water-energy-environment nexus for global food security and ecosystem sustainability-insight from energy budgeting, optimization and artificial intelligence G. Kaur https://doi.org/10.1007/s43538-025-00404-3
- Water Savings with Irrigation Water Management at Multi-week Lead Time Using Extended Range Predictions A. Roy et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2022.100320
- Integrating optimization and damage estimation to increase economic benefit and ensure food security under seasonal land variability G. Talukdar et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115872
- Analysis of determinants of groundwater depletion in rice-wheat ecosystems of Punjab- a case of India M. Bhardwaj & T. Dutta https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04902-0
- Methodology to quantify crop, irrigation water, and energy linkages in small-holder irrigation systems N. Sawant et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2025.101719
- Groundwater Pricing in Agriculture in South Asia: Research for Practical Policy-Making S. Balasubramanya https://doi.org/10.1086/735770
- Spatiotemporal variability of Indian rainfall using multiscale entropy R. Guntu et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124916
- Water-energy-food-ecosystem nexus in India—A review of relevant studies, policies, and programmes S. Jain et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2023.1128198
- Water-energy-food nexus in India: A critical review N. Kholod et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egycc.2021.100060
- Is flood to drip irrigation a solution to groundwater depletion in the Indo-Gangetic plain? J. Joseph et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac8f5d
- Enhancing soil structure and water dynamics through long-term mulched drip irrigation in arid reclaimed saline soils P. Luo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2025.08.007
- Exploring synergistic benefits of Water-Food-Energy Nexus through multi-objective reservoir optimization schemes T. Uen et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.172
- An analytical framework for state level water-energy-food nexus analysis in India: Insight from implemented policies K. Mondal et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.12.018
- Participatory Framing of a Conceptual Decision Model for a Hyperlocalized Food, Energy, and Water Nexus: A Case Study in Adaptive Management of Rural Water Systems in India J. Tilt et al. https://doi.org/10.1061/JWRMD5.WRENG-6154
- Examining the coupling and coordination of water-energy-food nexus at a sub-national scale in India – Insights from the perspective of Sustainable Development Goals K. Mondal et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2023.10.020
- Sustainable and resilient management scenarios for groundwater resources of the Red Sea coastal aquifers B. Niyazi et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.081
- Climate Change-Land Degradation-Food Security Nexus: Addressing India’s Challenge I. Abrol et al. https://doi.org/10.14302/issn.2639-3166.jar-19-3015
- Drivers, changes, and impacts of hydrological extremes in India: A review V. Mishra et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1742
- WEFE nexus unveiled: a comprehensive review of monitoring and modelling methods in the water-energy-food-ecosystems nexus M. Vrachioli et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ae0da3
- Factors Affecting Transboundary Water Disputes: Nile, Indus, and Euphrates–Tigris River Basins M. Azizi & J. Leandro https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040525
- Strategic assessment of groundwater potential zones: a hybrid geospatial approach H. Nazaripour et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-024-02243-x
- A minimalistic seasonal prediction model for Indian monsoon based on spatial patterns of rainfall anomalies R. Sahastrabuddhe et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4349-2
- Strongly heterogeneous patterns of groundwater depletion in Northwestern India S. Kumar Joshi et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126492
- Assessing climate change impacts on the WEF nexus: A case study of water availability, thermal energy production, and rice yield in the Kangsabati river basin K. Mondal et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egycc.2025.100221
- Synergising agricultural systems: A critical review of the interdependencies within the water-energy-food nexus for sustainable futures K. Mondal et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2025.04.004
- “More crop per drop”: Exploring India's cereal water use since 2005 B. Kayatz et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.304
- Hydrochemical evolution of groundwater in northwestern part of the Indo-Gangetic Basin, India: A geochemical and isotopic approach S. Prakash Rai et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101676
Saved (final revised paper)
Latest update: 02 Nov 2026
Short summary
The article summarises changing patterns of the water-food-energy nexus in India during recent decades. The work first analyses satellite data of water storage with a validation using the observed well data. Northern India shows a declining trend of water storage and western-central India shows an increasing trend of the same. Major droughts result in a drop in water storage which is not recovered due to uncontrolled ground water irrigation for agricultural activities even in good monsoon years.
The article summarises changing patterns of the water-food-energy nexus in India during recent...
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