Articles | Volume 24, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-2931-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-2931-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
04 Jun 2020
Research article |
| 04 Jun 2020
| 04 Jun 2020
Rainfall estimation from a German-wide commercial microwave link network: optimized processing and validation for 1 year of data
Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus Alpin, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
Christian Chwala
Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus Alpin, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
Chair of Regional Climate and Hydrology, Institute of Geography, University Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany
Julius Polz
Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus Alpin, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
Harald Kunstmann
Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus Alpin, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
Chair of Regional Climate and Hydrology, Institute of Geography, University Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany
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69 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Tropical rainfall monitoring with commercial microwave links in Sri Lanka A. Overeem et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac0fa6
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- Electromagnetic Water Drop Model for Wet Antenna Attenuation Based on Near-Field Measurements J. Tiede et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAP.2025.3573879
- Rainfall retrieval algorithm for commercial microwave links: stochastic calibration W. Wolff et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-485-2022
- Transboundary Rainfall Estimation Using Commercial Microwave Links N. Blettner et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023EA002869
- Harnessing the Radio Frequency Power Level of Cellular Terminals for Weather Parameter Sensing A. Sakkas et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13050840
- In-City Rain Mapping from Commercial Microwave Links—Challenges and Opportunities R. Janco et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23104653
- Intensity estimation after detection for accumulated rainfall estimation T. Weiss et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsip.2024.1291878
- Rain event detection in commercial microwave link attenuation data using convolutional neural networks J. Polz et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-3835-2020
- Exploring Environmental Information From Smartphone Signals: A Light Indoor Stationary Experimental Study for Rainfall Detection K. Pu et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2024.3455431
- Rainfall retrieval using commercial microwave links: Effect of sampling strategy on retrieval accuracy J. Pudashine et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126909
- Precipitation measurements experiment using microwave links in Eastern China from October 2020 to March 2022 K. Pu & X. Liu https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.131922
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- A Review of Technical Aspects and Challenges in Opportunistic Rainfall Estimation Using Satellite and Terrestrial Microwave Links: How wireless infrastructure can be used for rainfall monitoring R. Nebuloni et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/MGRS.2025.3573645
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- Can we reliably estimate precipitation with high resolution during disastrously large floods? J. Szturc et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-5405-2025
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- Technical note: A simple feedforward artificial neural network for high-temporal-resolution rain event detection using signal attenuation from commercial microwave links E. Øydvin et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-5163-2024
- Opportunistic Weather Sensing by Smart City Wireless Communication Networks J. Ostrometzky & H. Messer https://doi.org/10.3390/s24247901
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- Smartphone-Based Experimental Analysis of Rainfall Effects on LTE Signal Indicators Y. Xu et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25020375
- Precipitation Monitoring Using Commercial Microwave Links: Current Status, Challenges and Prospectives P. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15194821
- Reconstructing and Nowcasting the Rainfall Field by a CML Network P. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023EA002909
- Challenges in Diurnal Humidity Analysis from Cellular Microwave Links (CML) over Germany Y. Rubin et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14102353
- Rainfall Monitoring Using a Microwave Links Network: A Long-Term Experiment in East China X. Liu et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-023-2104-z
- Water vapor estimation based on 1-year data of E-band millimeter wave link in North China S. Zheng et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1675-2022
- Information-theoretic analysis of commercial microwave link and environmental variables in rainfall estimation A. Špačková et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-7445-2025
- Combining Commercial Microwave Link and Rain Gauge Observations to Estimate Countrywide Precipitation: A Stochastic Reconstruction and Pattern Analysis Approach N. Blettner et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022WR032563
- Rainfall Nowcasting Using Commercial Microwave Links R. Imhoff et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL089365
- Wildfire Smoke Particulate Matter Concentration Measurements Using Radio Links From Cellular Communication Networks A. Guyot et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020AV000258
- AI-Enhanced Rainfall Retrieval Using Commercial Microwave Links in 6G-IoT Networks: Advances, Challenges, and Opportunities M. Wang et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2025.3593645
- Low complexity single-layer neural network for enhanced rainfall estimation using microwave links A. Daher et al. https://doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2022.099
- Research on Rainfall Monitoring Based on E-Band Millimeter Wave Link in East China S. Zheng et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051670
- Application of commercial microwave links (CMLs) attenuation for quantitative estimation of precipitation M. Pasierb et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/met.2218
- On the potential of commercial microwave link networks for high spatial resolution rainfall monitoring in urban areas X. Zheng et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2022.106289
- Combining commercial microwave links and weather radar for classification of dry snow and rainfall E. Øydvin et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-2279-2025
- Spatio-Temporal Model for Predicting Multivariate Weather-Induced Attenuation in Wireless Networks D. Jacoby et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3555716
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- From proof‐of‐concept to proof‐of‐value: Approaching third‐party data to operational workflows of national meteorological services I. Garcia‐Marti et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.7757
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- Interpretable Microwave Sensing Using E-Band Commercial Links: Physics-Aware Deep Learning for Rainfall Detection L. Pawlik & J. Wilk-Jakubowski https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics13060595
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- A Framework for Minimizing the Impact of Wet Antenna Attenuation on Rainfall Estimates Provided by Commercial Microwave Links S. Doshi et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2025.3632933
- Improved rain event detection in commercial microwave link time series via combination with MSG SEVIRI data M. Graf et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-2165-2024
- CLEAR: a new discrete multiplicative random cascade model for disaggregating path-integrated rainfall estimates from commercial microwave links M. Fencl & M. Schleiss https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-4467-2025
- Frühwarnung mit Mobilfunknetzdaten - HoWa-innovativ U. Müller et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s35147-023-1909-0
- A year of attenuation data from a commercial dual-polarized duplex microwave link with concurrent disdrometer, rain gauge, and weather observations A. Špačková et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-4219-2021
- Rainfall estimates from opportunistic sensors in Germany across spatio-temporal scales M. Graf et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2021.100883
- Comparison of CML Rainfall Data against Rain Gauges and Disdrometers in a Mountainous Environment R. Nebuloni et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22093218
- Merging with crowdsourced rain gauge data improves pan-European radar precipitation estimates A. Overeem et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-649-2024
- Detection and attribution of cereal yield losses using Sentinel-2 and weather data: A case study in South Australia K. Duan et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2024.05.021
- Frequency-Dependent Variations of the Antenna Reflection Coefficient Due to Different Wetness Conditions on the Antenna Radome J. Tiede et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/ars-23-13-2025
- Wireless Telecommunication Links for Rainfall Monitoring: Deep Learning Approach and Experimental Results F. Diba et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3076781
- Multi-source estimation of rainfall using opportunistic sensors in urban areas in Burkina Faso J. Bonkoungou et al. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2025.160
- EURADCLIM: the European climatological high-resolution gauge-adjusted radar precipitation dataset A. Overeem et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-1441-2023
- The divergence of energy- and water-balance evapotranspiration estimates in humid regions L. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.129971
- Evaluation of error components in rainfall retrieval from collocated commercial microwave links A. Špačková et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-3865-2023
- Rain Effects on Low-Frequency NLOS Microwave Links: Theoretical Modeling and Detectability Analysis K. Pu et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAP.2026.3654678
- Precipitation Estimates From Commercial Microwave Links: Practical Approaches to Wet-Antenna Correction J. Pastorek et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2021.3110004
- A Machine Learning Approach for the Classification of Wet and Dry Periods Using Commercial Microwave Link Data E. Kamtchoum et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-022-01143-8
- Applicability of the γ–R Relationship in Rainfall Measurement With Microwave Link Under Tilted Conditions: A Simulation Analysis K. Pu et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2023.3330575
- Measuring rainfall using microwave links: the influence of temporal sampling L. van der Valk et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-2811-2024
- Rainfall monitoring based on commercial microwave links in Jiangyin, China: Long-term performance analysis over 3 years P. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.134558
- Rainfall Retrieval from Challenging 7 GHz Commercial Microwave Links in Burkina Faso Using a Deep Learning Wet-Dry Classification Framework M. Djibo et al. https://doi.org/10.4236/jst.2026.163004
69 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Tropical rainfall monitoring with commercial microwave links in Sri Lanka A. Overeem et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac0fa6
- A Universal Transformer-Based Algorithm for Rain Estimation Using Commercial Microwave Links Across Different Sampling Intervals B. Machlev et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2026.3726261
- Electromagnetic Water Drop Model for Wet Antenna Attenuation Based on Near-Field Measurements J. Tiede et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAP.2025.3573879
- Rainfall retrieval algorithm for commercial microwave links: stochastic calibration W. Wolff et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-485-2022
- Transboundary Rainfall Estimation Using Commercial Microwave Links N. Blettner et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023EA002869
- Harnessing the Radio Frequency Power Level of Cellular Terminals for Weather Parameter Sensing A. Sakkas et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13050840
- In-City Rain Mapping from Commercial Microwave Links—Challenges and Opportunities R. Janco et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23104653
- Intensity estimation after detection for accumulated rainfall estimation T. Weiss et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsip.2024.1291878
- Rain event detection in commercial microwave link attenuation data using convolutional neural networks J. Polz et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-3835-2020
- Exploring Environmental Information From Smartphone Signals: A Light Indoor Stationary Experimental Study for Rainfall Detection K. Pu et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2024.3455431
- Rainfall retrieval using commercial microwave links: Effect of sampling strategy on retrieval accuracy J. Pudashine et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126909
- Precipitation measurements experiment using microwave links in Eastern China from October 2020 to March 2022 K. Pu & X. Liu https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.131922
- Have you ever seen the rain? Observing a record convective rainfall with national and local monitoring networks and opportunistic sensors L. Petersson Wårdh et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-461-2026
- Rain Detection in Solar Insecticidal Lamp IoTs Systems Based on Multivariate Wireless Signal Feature Learning L. Liu et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15020465
- Missing Rainfall Extremes in Commercial Microwave Link Data Due To Complete Loss of Signal J. Polz et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022EA002456
- A Review of Technical Aspects and Challenges in Opportunistic Rainfall Estimation Using Satellite and Terrestrial Microwave Links: How wireless infrastructure can be used for rainfall monitoring R. Nebuloni et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/MGRS.2025.3573645
- Atmospheric Observations of Weather and Climate H. Bluestein et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.2022.2082369
- Can we reliably estimate precipitation with high resolution during disastrously large floods? J. Szturc et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-5405-2025
- Regenmessung im Mobilfunknetz M. Graf et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/piuz.202001602
- Comparing GPROF V7 and commercial microwave link precipitation estimates with DPR in the Netherlands, Sri Lanka and Nigeria L. Bogerd et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2026.2686442
- Technical note: A simple feedforward artificial neural network for high-temporal-resolution rain event detection using signal attenuation from commercial microwave links E. Øydvin et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-5163-2024
- Opportunistic Weather Sensing by Smart City Wireless Communication Networks J. Ostrometzky & H. Messer https://doi.org/10.3390/s24247901
- Hydrological response of a peri-urban catchment exploiting conventional and unconventional rainfall observations: the case study of Lambro Catchment G. Cazzaniga et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-2093-2022
- Measuring Precipitation via Microwave Bands with a High-Accuracy Setup A. Sakkas et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24248056
- Smartphone-Based Experimental Analysis of Rainfall Effects on LTE Signal Indicators Y. Xu et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25020375
- Precipitation Monitoring Using Commercial Microwave Links: Current Status, Challenges and Prospectives P. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15194821
- Reconstructing and Nowcasting the Rainfall Field by a CML Network P. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023EA002909
- Challenges in Diurnal Humidity Analysis from Cellular Microwave Links (CML) over Germany Y. Rubin et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14102353
- Rainfall Monitoring Using a Microwave Links Network: A Long-Term Experiment in East China X. Liu et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-023-2104-z
- Water vapor estimation based on 1-year data of E-band millimeter wave link in North China S. Zheng et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1675-2022
- Information-theoretic analysis of commercial microwave link and environmental variables in rainfall estimation A. Špačková et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-7445-2025
- Combining Commercial Microwave Link and Rain Gauge Observations to Estimate Countrywide Precipitation: A Stochastic Reconstruction and Pattern Analysis Approach N. Blettner et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022WR032563
- Rainfall Nowcasting Using Commercial Microwave Links R. Imhoff et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL089365
- Wildfire Smoke Particulate Matter Concentration Measurements Using Radio Links From Cellular Communication Networks A. Guyot et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020AV000258
- AI-Enhanced Rainfall Retrieval Using Commercial Microwave Links in 6G-IoT Networks: Advances, Challenges, and Opportunities M. Wang et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2025.3593645
- Low complexity single-layer neural network for enhanced rainfall estimation using microwave links A. Daher et al. https://doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2022.099
- Research on Rainfall Monitoring Based on E-Band Millimeter Wave Link in East China S. Zheng et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051670
- Application of commercial microwave links (CMLs) attenuation for quantitative estimation of precipitation M. Pasierb et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/met.2218
- On the potential of commercial microwave link networks for high spatial resolution rainfall monitoring in urban areas X. Zheng et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2022.106289
- Combining commercial microwave links and weather radar for classification of dry snow and rainfall E. Øydvin et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-2279-2025
- Spatio-Temporal Model for Predicting Multivariate Weather-Induced Attenuation in Wireless Networks D. Jacoby et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3555716
- Real-Time Rainfall Estimation Using Microwave Links: A Case Study in East China during the Plum Rain Season in 2020 K. Song et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21030858
- From proof‐of‐concept to proof‐of‐value: Approaching third‐party data to operational workflows of national meteorological services I. Garcia‐Marti et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.7757
- A Statistical Approach to Retrieve Rainfall Intensity by Attenuation Measurements From Commercial Microwave Links X. Zheng et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023EF003718
- Interpretable Microwave Sensing Using E-Band Commercial Links: Physics-Aware Deep Learning for Rainfall Detection L. Pawlik & J. Wilk-Jakubowski https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics13060595
- OpenMesh: wireless signal dataset for opportunistic urban weather sensing in New York City D. Jacoby et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-18-5817-2026
- New Insights Into the Dynamics of Wet Antenna Attenuation Based on In Situ Estimations Provided by the Dedicated Field Experiment ATTRRA2 J. Tiede et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2023.3320755
- A Framework for Minimizing the Impact of Wet Antenna Attenuation on Rainfall Estimates Provided by Commercial Microwave Links S. Doshi et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2025.3632933
- Improved rain event detection in commercial microwave link time series via combination with MSG SEVIRI data M. Graf et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-2165-2024
- CLEAR: a new discrete multiplicative random cascade model for disaggregating path-integrated rainfall estimates from commercial microwave links M. Fencl & M. Schleiss https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-4467-2025
- Frühwarnung mit Mobilfunknetzdaten - HoWa-innovativ U. Müller et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s35147-023-1909-0
- A year of attenuation data from a commercial dual-polarized duplex microwave link with concurrent disdrometer, rain gauge, and weather observations A. Špačková et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-4219-2021
- Rainfall estimates from opportunistic sensors in Germany across spatio-temporal scales M. Graf et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2021.100883
- Comparison of CML Rainfall Data against Rain Gauges and Disdrometers in a Mountainous Environment R. Nebuloni et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22093218
- Merging with crowdsourced rain gauge data improves pan-European radar precipitation estimates A. Overeem et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-649-2024
- Detection and attribution of cereal yield losses using Sentinel-2 and weather data: A case study in South Australia K. Duan et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2024.05.021
- Frequency-Dependent Variations of the Antenna Reflection Coefficient Due to Different Wetness Conditions on the Antenna Radome J. Tiede et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/ars-23-13-2025
- Wireless Telecommunication Links for Rainfall Monitoring: Deep Learning Approach and Experimental Results F. Diba et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3076781
- Multi-source estimation of rainfall using opportunistic sensors in urban areas in Burkina Faso J. Bonkoungou et al. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2025.160
- EURADCLIM: the European climatological high-resolution gauge-adjusted radar precipitation dataset A. Overeem et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-1441-2023
- The divergence of energy- and water-balance evapotranspiration estimates in humid regions L. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.129971
- Evaluation of error components in rainfall retrieval from collocated commercial microwave links A. Špačková et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-3865-2023
- Rain Effects on Low-Frequency NLOS Microwave Links: Theoretical Modeling and Detectability Analysis K. Pu et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAP.2026.3654678
- Precipitation Estimates From Commercial Microwave Links: Practical Approaches to Wet-Antenna Correction J. Pastorek et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2021.3110004
- A Machine Learning Approach for the Classification of Wet and Dry Periods Using Commercial Microwave Link Data E. Kamtchoum et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-022-01143-8
- Applicability of the γ–R Relationship in Rainfall Measurement With Microwave Link Under Tilted Conditions: A Simulation Analysis K. Pu et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2023.3330575
- Measuring rainfall using microwave links: the influence of temporal sampling L. van der Valk et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-2811-2024
- Rainfall monitoring based on commercial microwave links in Jiangyin, China: Long-term performance analysis over 3 years P. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.134558
- Rainfall Retrieval from Challenging 7 GHz Commercial Microwave Links in Burkina Faso Using a Deep Learning Wet-Dry Classification Framework M. Djibo et al. https://doi.org/10.4236/jst.2026.163004
Saved (final revised paper)
Latest update: 31 Oct 2026
Short summary
Commercial microwave links (CMLs), which form large parts of the backhaul from the ubiquitous cellular communication networks, can be used to estimate path-integrated rainfall rates. This study presents the processing and evaluation of the largest CML data set to date, covering the whole of Germany with almost 4000 CMLs. The CML-derived rainfall information compares well to a standard precipitation data set from the German Meteorological Service, which combines radar and rain gauge data.
Commercial microwave links (CMLs), which form large parts of the backhaul from the ubiquitous...
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