Articles | Volume 29, issue 20 
            
                
                    
            
            
            https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-5665-2025
                    © Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under 
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
                the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-5665-2025
                    © Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under 
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
                the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Catchment landforms predict groundwater-dependent wetland sensitivity to recharge changes
Etienne Marti
                                            Departamento de Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
                                        
                                    Sarah Leray
                                            Departamento de Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
                                        
                                    
                                            Centro de Cambio Global UC, Santiago, Chile
                                        
                                    
                                            Centre for Hydrogeology and Geothermics (CHYN), University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
                                        
                                    Related authors
Alexandre Gauvain, Ronan Abhervé, Alexandre Coche, Martin Le Mesnil, Clément Roques, Camille Bouchez, Jean Marçais, Sarah Leray, Etienne Marti, Ronny Figueroa, Etienne Bresciani, Camille Vautier, Bastien Boivin, June Sallou, Johan Bourcier, Benoit Combemale, Philip Brunner, Laurent Longuevergne, Luc Aquilina, and Jean-Raynald de Dreuzy
                                        EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3962, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3962, 2025
                                    Preprint archived 
                                    Short summary
                                    Short summary
                                            
                                                HydroModPy is an open-source toolbox that makes it easier to study and model groundwater flow at catchment scale. By combining mapping tools with groundwater modeling, it automates the process of building, analyzing and deploying aquifer models. This allows researchers to simulate groundwater flow that sustains stream baseflows, providing insights for the hydrology community. Designed to be accessible and customizable, HydroModPy supports sustainable water management, research, and education.
                                            
                                            
                                        Cyprien Louis, Landon J. S. Halloran, and Clément Roques
                                    Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 29, 1505–1523, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-1505-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-1505-2025, 2025
                                    Short summary
                                    Short summary
                                            
                                                We investigate the freeze–thaw cycles of a rock glacier located in Switzerland and their influence on subsurface hydrology. By analyzing aerial pictures, we estimate the evolution of its creeping velocity on an inter-annual scale. We use geochemical tracers measured at springs to identify the mixing of meltwater and deep groundwater on seasonal to diurnal timescales. This study provides new insights into the cryo-hydrogeological processes that regulate water fluxes in mountain regions.
                                            
                                            
                                        Alex Naoki Asato Kobayashi, Clément Roques, Daniel Hunkeler, Edward Mitchell, Robin Calisti, and Philip Brunner
                                        EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-816, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-816, 2025
                                    Short summary
                                    Short summary
                                            
                                                The increasing impact of climate change and human activities on greenhouse gas emissions highlights the need for effective monitoring, especially from the soil. Our design introduces a low-cost solution for measuring soil gas flux that is adaptable to various environments. Additionally, we propose a novel method for ensuring data quality before deploying these systems in the field.
                                            
                                            
                                        Alexandre Gauvain, Ronan Abhervé, Alexandre Coche, Martin Le Mesnil, Clément Roques, Camille Bouchez, Jean Marçais, Sarah Leray, Etienne Marti, Ronny Figueroa, Etienne Bresciani, Camille Vautier, Bastien Boivin, June Sallou, Johan Bourcier, Benoit Combemale, Philip Brunner, Laurent Longuevergne, Luc Aquilina, and Jean-Raynald de Dreuzy
                                        EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3962, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3962, 2025
                                    Preprint archived 
                                    Short summary
                                    Short summary
                                            
                                                HydroModPy is an open-source toolbox that makes it easier to study and model groundwater flow at catchment scale. By combining mapping tools with groundwater modeling, it automates the process of building, analyzing and deploying aquifer models. This allows researchers to simulate groundwater flow that sustains stream baseflows, providing insights for the hydrology community. Designed to be accessible and customizable, HydroModPy supports sustainable water management, research, and education.
                                            
                                            
                                        Ronan Abhervé, Clément Roques, Alexandre Gauvain, Laurent Longuevergne, Stéphane Louaisil, Luc Aquilina, and Jean-Raynald de Dreuzy
                                    Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 3221–3239, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3221-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3221-2023, 2023
                                    Short summary
                                    Short summary
                                            
                                                We propose a model calibration method constraining groundwater seepage in the hydrographic network. The method assesses the hydraulic properties of aquifers in regions where perennial streams are directly fed by groundwater. The estimated hydraulic conductivity appear to be highly sensitive to the spatial extent and density of streams. Such an approach improving subsurface characterization from surface information is particularly interesting for ungauged basins.
                                            
                                            
                                        Clément Roques, David E. Rupp, Jean-Raynald de Dreuzy, Laurent Longuevergne, Elizabeth R. Jachens, Gordon Grant, Luc Aquilina, and John S. Selker
                                    Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 4391–4405, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-4391-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-4391-2022, 2022
                                    Short summary
                                    Short summary
                                            
                                                Streamflow dynamics are directly dependent on contributions from groundwater, with hillslope heterogeneity being a major driver in controlling both spatial and temporal variabilities in recession discharge behaviors. By analysing new model results, this paper identifies the major structural features of aquifers driving streamflow dynamics. It provides important guidance to inform catchment-to-regional-scale models, with key geological knowledge influencing groundwater–surface water interactions.
                                            
                                            
                                        Alba Zappone, Antonio Pio Rinaldi, Melchior Grab, Quinn C. Wenning, Clément Roques, Claudio Madonna, Anne C. Obermann, Stefano M. Bernasconi, Matthias S. Brennwald, Rolf Kipfer, Florian Soom, Paul Cook, Yves Guglielmi, Christophe Nussbaum, Domenico Giardini, Marco Mazzotti, and Stefan Wiemer
                                    Solid Earth, 12, 319–343, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-319-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-319-2021, 2021
                                    Short summary
                                    Short summary
                                            
                                                The success of the geological storage of carbon dioxide is linked to the availability at depth of a capable reservoir and an impermeable caprock. The sealing capacity of the caprock is a key parameter for long-term CO2 containment. Faults crosscutting the caprock might represent preferential pathways for CO2 to escape. A decameter-scale experiment on injection in a fault, monitored by an integrated network of multiparamerter sensors, sheds light on the mobility of fluids within the fault.
                                            
                                            
                                        Cited articles
                        
                        Abhervé, R., Roques, C., Gauvain, A., Longuevergne, L., Louaisil, S., Aquilina, L., and de Dreuzy, J.-R.: Calibration of groundwater seepage against the spatial distribution of the stream network to assess catchment-scale hydraulic properties, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 3221–3239, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3221-2023, 2023. 
                    
                
                        
                        Armijo, R., Lacassin, R., Coudurier-Curveur, A., and Carrizo, D.: Coupled tectonic evolution of Andean orogeny and global climate, Earth-Sci. Rev., 143, 1–35, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.01.005, 2015. 
                    
                
                        
                        Bakker, M., Post, V., Langevin, C. D., Hughes, J. D., White, J. T., Starn, J. J., and Fienen, M. N.: Scripting MODFLOW Model Development Using Python and FloPy, Groundwater, 54, 733–739, https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12413, 2016. 
                    
                
                        
                        Barron, O. V., Emelyanova, I., Van Niel, T. G., Pollock, D., and Hodgson, G.: Mapping groundwater-dependent ecosystems using remote sensing measures of vegetation and moisture dynamics, Hydrol. Process., 28, 372–385, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9609, 2014. 
                    
                
                        
                        Berghuijs, W. R., Collenteur, R. A., Jasechko, S., Jaramillo, F., Luijendijk, E., Moeck, C., Van Der Velde, Y., and Allen, S. T.: Groundwater recharge is sensitive to changing long-term aridity, Nat. Clim. Change, 14, 357–363, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-01953-z, 2024. 
                    
                
                        
                        Bresciani, E., Davy, P., and de Dreuzy, J.-R.: Is the Dupuit assumption suitable for predicting the groundwater seepage area in hillslopes?, Water Resour. Res., 50, 2394–2406, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013WR014284, 2014. 
                    
                
                        
                        Bresciani, E., Goderniaux, P., and Batelaan, O.: Hydrogeological controls of water table-land surface interactions: Water Table-Land Surface Interactions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 9653–9661, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL070618, 2016. 
                    
                
                        
                        Carlier, C., Wirth, S. B., Cochand, F., Hunkeler, D., and Brunner, P.: Exploring Geological and Topographical Controls on Low Flows with Hydrogeological Models, Groundwater, 57, 48–62, https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12845, 2019. 
                    
                
                        
                        Charrier, R., Pinto, L., and Rodríguez, M. P.: Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in Chile, in: The Geology of Chile, edited by: Moreno, T. and Gibbons, W., The Geological Society of London, 21–114, https://doi.org/10.1144/GOCH.3, 2007. 
                    
                
                        
                        Condon, L. E. and Maxwell, R. M.: Evaluating the relationship between topography and groundwater using outputs from a continental-scale integrated hydrology model, Water Resour. Res., 51, 6602–6621, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016774, 2015. 
                    
                
                        
                        Condon, L. E., Markovich, K. H., Kelleher, C. A., McDonnell, J. J., Ferguson, G., and McIntosh, J. C.: Where Is the Bottom of a Watershed?, Water Resour. Res., 56, e2019WR026010, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019WR026010, 2020. 
                    
                
                        
                        Cuthbert, M. O., Gleeson, T., Moosdorf, N., Befus, K. M., Schneider, A., Hartmann, J., and Lehner, B.: Global patterns and dynamics of climate–groundwater interactions, Nat. Clim. Change, 9, 137–141, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0386-4, 2019. 
                    
                
                        
                        Doody, T. M., Barron, O. V., Dowsley, K., Emelyanova, I., Fawcett, J., Overton, I. C., Pritchard, J. L., Van Dijk, A. I. J. M., and Warren, G.: Continental mapping of groundwater dependent ecosystems: A methodological framework to integrate diverse data and expert opinion, J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud., 10, 61–81, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2017.01.003, 2017. 
                    
                
                        
                        Eamus, D. and Froend, R.: Groundwater-dependent ecosystems: the where, what and why of GDEs, Aust. J. Bot., 54, 91, https://doi.org/10.1071/BT06029, 2006. 
                    
                
                        
                        Fan, Y.: Are catchments leaky?, WIREs Water, 6, https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1386, 2019. 
                    
                
                        
                        Fan, Y., Clark, M., Lawrence, D. M., Swenson, S., Band, L. E., Brantley, S. L., Brooks, P. D., Dietrich, W. E., Flores, A., Grant, G., Kirchner, J. W., Mackay, D. S., McDonnell, J. J., Milly, P. C. D., Sullivan, P. L., Tague, C., Ajami, H., Chaney, N., Hartmann, A., Hazenberg, P., McNamara, J., Pelletier, J., Perket, J., Rouholahnejad-Freund, E., Wagener, T., Zeng, X., Beighley, E., Buzan, J., Huang, M., Livneh, B., Mohanty, B. P., Nijssen, B., Safeeq, M., Shen, C., Van Verseveld, W., Volk, J., and Yamazaki, D.: Hillslope Hydrology in Global Change Research and Earth System Modeling, Water Resour. Res., 55, 1737–1772, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018WR023903, 2019. 
                    
                
                        
                        Frisbee, M. D., Tolley, D. G., and Wilson, J. L.: Field estimates of groundwater circulation depths in two mountainous watersheds in the western U.S. and the effect of deep circulation on solute concentrations in streamflow, Water Resour. Res., 53, 2693–2715, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR019553, 2017. 
                    
                
                        
                        Gauvain, A., Leray, S., Marçais, J., Roques, C., Vautier, C., Gresselin, F., Aquilina, L., and Dreuzy, J.: Geomorphological Controls on Groundwater Transit Times: A Synthetic Analysis at the Hillslope Scale, Water Resour. Res., 57, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR029463, 2021. 
                    
                
                        
                        Gleeson, T. and Manning, A. H.: Regional groundwater flow in mountainous terrain: Three-dimensional simulations of topographic and hydrogeologic controls, Water Resour. Res., 44, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008WR006848, 2008. 
                    
                
                        
                        Haitjema, H. M. and Mitchell-Bruker, S.: Are Water Tables a Subdued Replica of the Topography?, Groundwater, 43, 781–786, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2005.00090.x, 2005. 
                    
                
                        
                        Harbaugh, A. W.: MODFLOW-2005: the U.S. Geological Survey modular ground-water model–the ground-water flow process, https://doi.org/10.3133/tm6A16, 2005. 
                    
                
                        
                        Hartley, A. J. and Evenstar, L.: Cenozoic stratigraphic development in the north Chilean forearc: Implications for basin development and uplift history of the Central Andean margin, Tectonophysics, 495, 67–77, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2009.05.013, 2010. 
                    
                
                        
                        Hrachowitz, M., Savenije, H. H. G., Blöschl, G., McDonnell, J. J., Sivapalan, M., Pomeroy, J. W., Arheimer, B., Blume, T., Clark, M. P., Ehret, U., Fenicia, F., Freer, J. E., Gelfan, A., Gupta, H. V., Hughes, D. A., Hut, R. W., Montanari, A., Pande, S., Tetzlaff, D., Troch, P. A., Uhlenbrook, S., Wagener, T., Winsemius, H. C., Woods, R. A., Zehe, E., and Cudennec, C.: A decade of Predictions in Ungauged Basins (PUB) – a review, Hydrol. Sci. J., 58, 1198–1255, https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2013.803183, 2013. 
                    
                
                        
                        Jamieson, G. R. and Freeze, R. A.: Determining Hydraulic Conductivity Distributions in a Mountainous Area Using Mathematical Modeling, Ground Water, 20, 168–177, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1982.tb02745.x, 1982. 
                    
                
                        
                        Jasiewicz, J. and Stepinski, T. F.: Geomorphons – a pattern recognition approach to classification and mapping of landforms, Geomorphology, 182, 147–156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.11.005, 2013. 
                    
                
                        
                        Jordan, T. E., Isacks, B. L., Allmendinger, R. W., Brewer, J. A., Ramos, V. A., and Ando, C. J.: Andean tectonics related to geometry of subducted Nazca plate, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 94, 341, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1983)94<341:ATRTGO>2.0.CO;2, 1983. 
                    
                
                        
                        Jordan, T. E., Kirk-Lawlor, N. E., Blanco, N. P., Rech, J. A., and Cosentino, N. J.: Landscape modification in response to repeated onset of hyperarid paleoclimate states since 14 Ma, Atacama Desert, Chile, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 126, 1016–1046, https://doi.org/10.1130/B30978.1, 2014. 
                    
                
                        
                        Kløve, B., Ala-aho, P., Bertrand, G., Boukalova, Z., Ertürk, A., Goldscheider, N., Ilmonen, J., Karakaya, N., Kupfersberger, H., Kvœrner, J., Lundberg, A., Mileusnić, M., Moszczynska, A., Muotka, T., Preda, E., Rossi, P., Siergieiev, D., Šimek, J., Wachniew, P., Angheluta, V., and Widerlund, A.: Groundwater dependent ecosystems. Part I: Hydroecological status and trends, Environ. Sci. Policy, 14, 770–781, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2011.04.002, 2011. 
                    
                
                        
                        Kløve, B., Ala-Aho, P., Bertrand, G., Gurdak, J. J., Kupfersberger, H., Kværner, J., Muotka, T., Mykrä, H., Preda, E., Rossi, P., Uvo, C. B., Velasco, E., and Pulido-Velazquez, M.: Climate change impacts on groundwater and dependent ecosystems, J. Hydrol., 518, 250–266, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.06.037, 2014. 
                    
                
                        
                        Konapala, G., Mishra, A. K., Wada, Y., and Mann, M. E.: Climate change will affect global water availability through compounding changes in seasonal precipitation and evaporation, Nat. Commun., 11, 3044, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16757-w, 2020. 
                    
                
                        
                        Lehner, B. and Grill, G.: Global river hydrography and network routing: baseline data and new approaches to study the world's large river systems, Hydrol. Process., 27, 2171–2186, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9740, 2013. 
                    
                
                        
                        Lindsay, J. B.: Whitebox GAT: A case study in geomorphometric analysis, Comput. Geosci., 95, 75–84, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2016.07.003, 2016. 
                    
                
                        
                        Marçais, J., De Dreuzy, J.-R., and Erhel, J.: Dynamic coupling of subsurface and seepage flows solved within a regularized partition formulation, Adv. Water Resour., 109, 94–105, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2017.09.008, 2017. 
                    
                
                        
                        Marti, E., Leray, S., and Roques, C.: Dataset used in “Catchment landforms predict groundwater-dependent wetland sensitivity to recharge changes”, Zenodo [data set] https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.10144981, 2025. 
                    
                
                        
                        McIntosh, J. C. and Ferguson, G.: Deep Meteoric Water Circulation in Earth's Crust, Geophys. Res. Lett., 48, e2020GL090461, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL090461, 2021. 
                    
                
                        
                        Nester, P. and Jordan, T.: The Pampa del Tamarugal Forearc Basin in Northern Chile: The Interaction of Tectonics and Climate, in: Tectonics of Sedimentary Basins, edited by: Busby, C. and Azor, A., Wiley, 369–381, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444347166.ch18, 2011. 
                    
                
                        
                        Niswonger, R. G., Panday, S., and Ibaraki, M.: MODFLOW-NWT, a Newton formulation for MODFLOW-2005, https://doi.org/10.3133/tm6A37, 2011. 
                    
                
                        
                        Pedregosa, F., Varoquaux, G., Gramfort, A., Michel, V., Thirion, B., Grisel, O., Blondel, M., Prettenhofer, P., Weiss, R., Dubourg, V., Vanderplas, J., Passos, A., Cournapeau, D., Brucher, M., Perrot, M., and Duchesnay, É.: Scikit-learn: Machine Learning in Python, J. Mach. Learn. Res., 12, 2825–2830, 2011. 
                    
                
                        
                        Rath, P., Bresciani, E., Zhu, J., and Befus, K. M.: Numerical analysis of seepage faces and subaerial groundwater discharge near waterbodies and on uplands, Environ. Model. Softw., 169, 105828, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2023.105828, 2023. 
                    
                
                        
                        Rohde, M. M., Albano, C. M., Huggins, X., Klausmeyer, K. R., Morton, C., Sharman, A., Zaveri, E., Saito, L., Freed, Z., Howard, J. K., Job, N., Richter, H., Toderich, K., Rodella, A.-S., Gleeson, T., Huntington, J., Chandanpurkar, H. A., Purdy, A. J., Famiglietti, J. S., Singer, M. B., Roberts, D. A., Caylor, K., and Stella, J. C.: Groundwater-dependent ecosystem map exposes global dryland protection needs, Nature, 632, 101–107, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07702-8, 2024. 
                    
                
                        
                        Scanlon, B. R., Fakhreddine, S., Rateb, A., De Graaf, I., Famiglietti, J., Gleeson, T., Grafton, R. Q., Jobbagy, E., Kebede, S., Kolusu, S. R., Konikow, L. F., Long, D., Mekonnen, M., Schmied, H. M., Mukherjee, A., MacDonald, A., Reedy, R. C., Shamsudduha, M., Simmons, C. T., Sun, A., Taylor, R. G., Villholth, K. G., Vörösmarty, C. J., and Zheng, C.: Global water resources and the role of groundwater in a resilient water future, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 4, 87–101, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00378-6, 2023.  
                    
                
                        
                        Singha, K. and Navarre-Sitchler, A.: The Importance of Groundwater in Critical Zone Science, Groundwater, 60, 27–34, https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.13143, 2022. 
                    
                
                        
                        Sophocleous, M.: Interactions between groundwater and surface water: the state of the science, Hydrogeol. J., 10, 52–67, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-001-0170-8, 2002. 
                    
                
                        
                        Taylor, R. G., Scanlon, B., Döll, P., Rodell, M., van Beek, R., Wada, Y., Longuevergne, L., Leblanc, M., Famiglietti, J. S., Edmunds, M., Konikow, L., Green, T. R., Chen, J., Taniguchi, M., Bierkens, M. F. P., MacDonald, A., Fan, Y., Maxwell, R. M., Yechieli, Y., Gurdak, J. J., Allen, D. M., Shamsudduha, M., Hiscock, K., Yeh, P. J.-F., Holman, I., and Treidel, H.: Ground water and climate change, Nat. Clim. Change, 3, 322–329, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1744, 2013. 
                    
                
                        
                        Tetzlaff, D., Laudon, H., Luo, S., and Soulsby, C.: Ecohydrological resilience and the landscape water storage continuum in droughts, Nat. Water, 2, 915–918, https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-024-00300-y, 2024. 
                    
                
                        
                        Tóth, J.: A theoretical analysis of groundwater flow in small drainage basins, J. Geophys. Res., 68, 4795–4812, https://doi.org/10.1029/JZ068i016p04795, 1963. 
                    
                
                        
                        Welch, L. A., Allen, D. M., and Van Meerveld, H. J.: Topographic Controls on Deep Groundwater Contributions to Mountain Headwater Streams and Sensitivity to Available Recharge, Can. Water Resour. J. Rev. Can. Ressour. Hydr., 37, 349–371, https://doi.org/10.4296/cwrj2011-907, 2012. 
                    
                
                        
                        Yáñez, G., Munoz, M., Flores-Aqueveque, V., and Bosch, A.: Gravity derived depth to basement in Santiago Basin, Chile: implications for its geological evolution, hydrogeology, low enthalpy geothermal, soil characterization and geo-hazards, Andean Geol., 42, 147–172, https://doi.org/10.5027/andgeoV42n2-a01, 2015. 
                    
                
                        
                        Zhang, X., Jiao, J. J., and Guo, W.: How Does Topography Control Topography-Driven Groundwater Flow?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 49, e2022GL101005, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL101005, 2022. 
                    
                Short summary
            This study shows that the response of groundwater-dependent wetlands to recharge changes can be predicted from landform properties alone. Mountain catchments are less sensitive to recharge changes than flat ones, due to fewer but more persistent seepage areas. These results support a scalable approach to assessing wetland vulnerability to climate change, with practical implications for water resource management and conservation planning in diverse landscapes.
            This study shows that the response of groundwater-dependent wetlands to recharge changes can be...
            
         
 
                        
                                         
                        
                                         
                        
                                         
                        
                                         
             
             
            