Articles | Volume 29, issue 14
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-3165-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-3165-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
24 Jul 2025
Research article |
| 24 Jul 2025
| 24 Jul 2025
Rainfall intensity estimations based on degradation characteristics of images taken with commercial cameras
SABO Department, National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, Tsukuba, Japan
Taro Uchida
Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
Related authors
No articles found.
Thiago Dutra dos Santos and Taro Uchida
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2255, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2255, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Five federal sediment-related disaster risk assessments have been conducted in Brazil, each with distinct objectives and methodologies. To evaluate their effectiveness and identify issues, we analyzed the methods, the outcome data, and reviewed the status of disaster prevention initiatives based on the assessment results. Our findings revealed persistent problems across all methods. Consequently, we recommended improvements to enhance their efficacy and reliability.
Related subject area
Subject: Hydrometeorology | Techniques and Approaches: Instruments and observation techniques
An intercomparison of four gridded precipitation products over Europe using an extension of the three-cornered-hat method
Technical note: A simple feedforward artificial neural network for high-temporal-resolution rain event detection using signal attenuation from commercial microwave links
Evaluation of high-intensity rainfall observations from personal weather stations in the Netherlands
Technical note: A guide to using three open-source quality control algorithms for rainfall data from personal weather stations
Technical note: Investigating the potential for smartphone-based monitoring of evapotranspiration and land surface energy-balance partitioning
Exploring patterns in precipitation intensity–duration–area–frequency relationships using weather radar data
Merging with crowdsourced rain gauge data improves pan-European radar precipitation estimates
Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution during rainy seasons in complicated mountain terrain
Evaluation of precipitation measurement methods using data from a precision lysimeter network
Quantitative rainfall analysis of the 2021 mid-July flood event in Belgium
Multi-scale temporal analysis of evaporation on a saline lake in the Atacama Desert
Coastal and orographic effects on extreme precipitation revealed by weather radar observations
Unshielded precipitation gauge collection efficiency with wind speed and hydrometeor fall velocity
Evaluation of Integrated Nowcasting through Comprehensive Analysis (INCA) precipitation analysis using a dense rain-gauge network in southeastern Austria
Microphysical features of typhoon and non-typhoon rainfall observed in Taiwan, an island in the northwestern Pacific
Partial energy balance closure of eddy covariance evaporation measurements using concurrent lysimeter observations over grassland
Rivers in the sky, flooding on the ground: the role of atmospheric rivers in inland flooding in central Europe
Evaluation of the WMO Solid Precipitation Intercomparison Experiment (SPICE) transfer functions for adjusting the wind bias in solid precipitation measurements
Rainfall estimation from a German-wide commercial microwave link network: optimized processing and validation for 1 year of data
Radar-based characterisation of heavy precipitation in the eastern Mediterranean and its representation in a convection-permitting model
Effect of disdrometer type on rain drop size distribution characterisation: a new dataset for south-eastern Australia
Quantitative precipitation estimation with weather radar using a data- and information-based approach
Continuous, near-real-time observations of water stable isotope ratios during rainfall and throughfall events
Rain erosivity map for Germany derived from contiguous radar rain data
Citizen science flow – an assessment of simple streamflow measurement methods
Daily evaluation of 26 precipitation datasets using Stage-IV gauge-radar data for the CONUS
Exploring the use of underground gravity monitoring to evaluate radar estimates of heavy rainfall
The CAMELS-CL dataset: catchment attributes and meteorology for large sample studies – Chile dataset
Precipitation characteristics and associated weather conditions on the eastern slopes of the Canadian Rockies during March–April 2015
Dendrohydrology and water resources management in south-central Chile: lessons from the Río Imperial streamflow reconstruction
Comparison of precipitation measurements by OTT Parsivel2 and Thies LPM optical disdrometers
Obtaining sub-daily new snow density from automated measurements in high mountain regions
Deriving surface soil moisture from reflected GNSS signal observations from a grassland site in southwestern France
Testing and development of transfer functions for weighing precipitation gauges in WMO-SPICE
Technical note: Using distributed temperature sensing for Bowen ratio evaporation measurements
Evaluation of GPM IMERG Early, Late, and Final rainfall estimates using WegenerNet gauge data in southeastern Austria
The 2010–2015 megadrought in central Chile: impacts on regional hydroclimate and vegetation
Measuring precipitation with a geolysimeter
Convective rainfall in a dry climate: relations with synoptic systems and flash-flood generation in the Dead Sea region
Use of reflected GNSS SNR data to retrieve either soil moisture or vegetation height from a wheat crop
Water-use dynamics of an alien-invaded riparian forest within the Mediterranean climate zone of the Western Cape, South Africa
Impact of rainfall spatial aggregation on the identification of debris flow occurrence thresholds
Area-averaged evapotranspiration over a heterogeneous land surface: aggregation of multi-point EC flux measurements with a high-resolution land-cover map and footprint analysis
Analysis of single-Alter-shielded and unshielded measurements of mixed and solid precipitation from WMO-SPICE
Analysing surface energy balance closure and partitioning over a semi-arid savanna FLUXNET site in Skukuza, Kruger National Park, South Africa
Rainfall and streamflow sensor network design: a review of applications, classification, and a proposed framework
The quantification and correction of wind-induced precipitation measurement errors
Response of water vapour D-excess to land–atmosphere interactions in a semi-arid environment
Areal rainfall estimation using moving cars – computer experiments including hydrological modeling
Recent changes and drivers of the atmospheric evaporative demand in the Canary Islands
Llorenç Lledó, Thomas Haiden, and Matthieu Chevallier
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 28, 5149–5162, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-5149-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-5149-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
High-quality observational datasets are essential to perform forecast verification and improve weather forecast services. When it comes to verifying precipitation, a high-resolution, global-coverage and good-quality dataset is not yet available. This research analyses the strengths and shortcomings of four observational products that employ complementary measurement techniques to estimate surface precipitation. Satellites provide good spatial coverage, but other products are still more accurate.
Erlend Øydvin, Maximilian Graf, Christian Chwala, Mareile Astrid Wolff, Nils-Otto Kitterød, and Vegard Nilsen
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 28, 5163–5171, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-5163-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-5163-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Two simple neural networks are trained to detect rainfall events using signal loss from commercial microwave links. Whereas existing rainfall event detection methods have focused on hourly resolution reference data, this study uses weather radar and rain gauges with 5 min and 1 min temporal resolutions, respectively. Our results show that the developed neural networks can detect rainfall events with a higher temporal precision than existing methods.
Nathalie Rombeek, Markus Hrachowitz, Arjan Droste, and Remko Uijlenhoet
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3207, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3207, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Rain gauge networks from personal weather stations (PWSs) have a network density 100 times higher than dedicated rain gauge networks in the Netherlands. However, PWSs are prone to several sources of error, as they are generally not installed and maintained according to international guidelines. This study systematically quantifies and describes the uncertainties arising from PWS rainfall estimates. In particular, the focus is on the highest rainfall accumulations.
Abbas El Hachem, Jochen Seidel, Tess O'Hara, Roberto Villalobos Herrera, Aart Overeem, Remko Uijlenhoet, András Bárdossy, and Lotte de Vos
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 28, 4715–4731, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-4715-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-4715-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents an overview of open-source quality control (QC) algorithms for rainfall data from personal weather stations (PWSs). The methodology and usability along technical and operational guidelines for using every QC algorithm are presented. All three QC algorithms are available for users to explore in the OpenSense sandbox. They were applied in a case study using PWS data from the Amsterdam region in the Netherlands. The results highlight the necessity for data quality control.
Adriaan J. Teuling, Belle Holthuis, and Jasper F. D. Lammers
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 28, 3799–3806, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-3799-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-3799-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The understanding of spatio-temporal variability of evapotranspiration (ET) is currently limited by a lack of measurement techniques that are low cost and that can be applied anywhere at any time. Here we show that evapotranspiration can be estimated accurately using observations made by smartphone sensors, suggesting that smartphone-based ET monitoring could provide a realistic and low-cost alternative for real-time ET estimation in the field.
Talia Rosin, Francesco Marra, and Efrat Morin
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 28, 3549–3566, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-3549-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-3549-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Knowledge of extreme precipitation probability at various spatial–temporal scales is crucial. We estimate extreme precipitation return levels at multiple scales (10 min–24 h, 0.25–500 km2) in the eastern Mediterranean using radar data. We show our estimates are comparable to those derived from averaged daily rain gauges. We then explore multi-scale extreme precipitation across coastal, mountainous, and desert regions.
Aart Overeem, Hidde Leijnse, Gerard van der Schrier, Else van den Besselaar, Irene Garcia-Marti, and Lotte Wilhelmina de Vos
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 28, 649–668, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-649-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-649-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Ground-based radar precipitation products typically need adjustment with rain gauge accumulations to achieve a reasonable accuracy. Crowdsourced rain gauge networks have a much higher density than conventional ones. Here, a 1-year personal weather station (PWS) gauge dataset is obtained. After quality control, the 1 h PWS gauge accumulations are merged with pan-European radar accumulations. The potential of crowdsourcing to improve radar precipitation products in (near) real time is confirmed.
Wenqian Mao, Wenyu Zhang, and Menggang Kou
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 3895–3910, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3895-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3895-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Drop size distribution characteristics vary with microphysical characteristics. We choose the Qilian mountains and represent the southern and northern slopes and the interior. To investigate discrepancies, DSD characteristics and Z–R relationships are analyzed based on continuous observations in the rainy season. We obtain the finer precipitation of mountains and refine the accuracy of quantitative precipitation estimation, which would help develop cloud water resources in mountainous areas.
Tobias Schnepper, Jannis Groh, Horst H. Gerke, Barbara Reichert, and Thomas Pütz
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 3265–3292, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3265-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3265-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We compared hourly data from precipitation gauges with lysimeter reference data at three sites under different climatic conditions. Our results show that precipitation gauges recorded 33–96 % of the reference precipitation data for the period under consideration (2015–2018). Correction algorithms increased the registered precipitation by 9–14 %. It follows that when using point precipitation data, regardless of the precipitation measurement method used, relevant uncertainties must be considered.
Michel Journée, Edouard Goudenhoofdt, Stéphane Vannitsem, and Laurent Delobbe
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 3169–3189, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3169-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-3169-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The exceptional flood of July 2021 in central Europe impacted Belgium severely. This study aims to characterize rainfall amounts in Belgium from 13 to 16 July 2021 based on observational data (i.e., rain gauge data and a radar-based rainfall product). The spatial and temporal distributions of rainfall during the event aredescribed. In order to document such a record-breaking event as much as possible, the rainfall data are shared with the scientific community on Zenodo for further studies.
Felipe Lobos-Roco, Oscar Hartogensis, Francisco Suárez, Ariadna Huerta-Viso, Imme Benedict, Alberto de la Fuente, and Jordi Vilà-Guerau de Arellano
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 3709–3729, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-3709-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-3709-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This research brings a multi-scale temporal analysis of evaporation in a saline lake of the Atacama Desert. Our findings reveal that evaporation is controlled differently depending on the timescale. Evaporation is controlled sub-diurnally by wind speed, regulated seasonally by radiation and modulated interannually by ENSO. Our research extends our understanding of evaporation, contributing to improving the climate change assessment and efficiency of water management in arid regions.
Francesco Marra, Moshe Armon, and Efrat Morin
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 1439–1458, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-1439-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-1439-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We present a new method for quantifying the probability of occurrence of extreme rainfall using radar data, and we use it to examine coastal and orographic effects on extremes. We identify three regimes, directly related to precipitation physical processes, which respond differently to these forcings. The methods and results are of interest for researchers and practitioners using radar for the analysis of extremes, risk managers, water resources managers, and climate change impact studies.
Jeffery Hoover, Michael E. Earle, Paul I. Joe, and Pierre E. Sullivan
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 5473–5491, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5473-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5473-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Transfer functions with dependence on wind speed and precipitation fall velocity are evaluated alongside transfer functions with wind speed and temperature dependence for unshielded precipitation gauges. The transfer functions with fall velocity dependence reduced the RMSE of unshielded gauge measurements relative to the functions based on wind speed and temperature, demonstrating the importance of fall velocity for precipitation gauge collection efficiency and transfer functions.
Esmail Ghaemi, Ulrich Foelsche, Alexander Kann, and Jürgen Fuchsberger
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 4335–4356, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4335-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4335-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We assess an operational merged gauge–radar precipitation product over a period of 12 years, using gridded precipitation fields from a dense gauge network (WegenerNet) in southeastern Austria. We analyze annual data, seasonal data, and extremes using different metrics. We identify individual events using a simple threshold based on the interval between two consecutive events and evaluate the events' characteristics in both datasets.
Jayalakshmi Janapati, Balaji Kumar Seela, Pay-Liam Lin, Meng-Tze Lee, and Everette Joseph
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 4025–4040, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4025-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4025-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Typhoon (TY) and non-typhoon (NTY) rainy days in northern Taiwan summer seasons showed more large drops on NTY than TY rainy days. Relatively higher convective activity and drier conditions in NTY than TY lead to variations in microphysical characteristics between TY and NTY rainy days. The raindrop size distribution and kinetic energy relations assessed for TY and NTY rainfall can be useful for evaluating the radar rainfall estimation algorithms, cloud modeling, and rainfall erosivity studies.
Peter Widmoser and Dominik Michel
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 1151–1163, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-1151-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-1151-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
With respect to ongoing discussions about the causes of energy imbalance, a method for closing the latent heat flux gap based on lysimeter measurements is assessed at four measurement stations over grassland in humid and semiarid climates. The applied partial closure yields excellent adjustments of eddy covariance data as compared to results found in the literature. The method also allows a distinction between systematic and random deviation of eddy covariance and lysimeter measurements.
Monica Ionita, Viorica Nagavciuc, and Bin Guan
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 5125–5147, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-5125-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-5125-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Analysis of the largest 10 floods in the lower Rhine, between 1817 and 2015, shows that all these extreme flood peaks have been preceded, up to 7 d in advance, by intense moisture transport from the tropical North Atlantic basin in the form of narrow bands also known as atmospheric rivers. The results presented in this study offer new insights regarding the importance of moisture transport as the driver of extreme flooding in the lower part of the Rhine catchment area.
Craig D. Smith, Amber Ross, John Kochendorfer, Michael E. Earle, Mareile Wolff, Samuel Buisán, Yves-Alain Roulet, and Timo Laine
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 4025–4043, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-4025-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-4025-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
During the World Meteorological Organization Solid Precipitation Intercomparison Experiment (SPICE), transfer functions were developed to adjust automated gauge measurements of solid precipitation for systematic bias due to wind. The transfer functions were developed by combining data from eight sites, attempting to make them more universally applicable in a range of climates. This analysis is an assessment of the performance of those transfer functions, using data collected when SPICE ended.
Maximilian Graf, Christian Chwala, Julius Polz, and Harald Kunstmann
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 2931–2950, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-2931-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-2931-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Commercial microwave links (CMLs), which form large parts of the backhaul from the ubiquitous cellular communication networks, can be used to estimate path-integrated rainfall rates. This study presents the processing and evaluation of the largest CML data set to date, covering the whole of Germany with almost 4000 CMLs. The CML-derived rainfall information compares well to a standard precipitation data set from the German Meteorological Service, which combines radar and rain gauge data.
Moshe Armon, Francesco Marra, Yehouda Enzel, Dorita Rostkier-Edelstein, and Efrat Morin
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 1227–1249, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-1227-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-1227-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Heavy precipitation events (HPEs), occurring around the globe, lead to natural hazards as well as to water resource recharge. Rainfall patterns during HPEs vary from one case to another and govern their effect. Thus, correct prediction of these patterns is crucial for coping with HPEs. However, the ability of weather models to generate such patterns is unclear. Here, we characterise rainfall patterns during HPEs based on weather radar data and evaluate weather model simulations of these events.
Adrien Guyot, Jayaram Pudashine, Alain Protat, Remko Uijlenhoet, Valentijn R. N. Pauwels, Alan Seed, and Jeffrey P. Walker
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 4737–4761, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-4737-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-4737-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We characterised for the first time the rainfall microphysics for Southern Hemisphere temperate latitudes. Co-located instruments were deployed to provide information on the sampling effect and spatio-temporal variabilities at micro scales. Substantial differences were found across the instruments, increasing with increasing values of the rain rate. Specific relations for reflectivity–rainfall are presented together with related uncertainties for drizzle and stratiform and convective rainfall.
Malte Neuper and Uwe Ehret
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 3711–3733, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-3711-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-3711-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we apply a data-driven approach to quantitatively estimate precipitation using weather radar data. The method is based on information theory concepts. It uses predictive relations expressed by empirical discrete probability distributions, which are directly derived from data rather than the standard deterministic functions.
Barbara Herbstritt, Benjamin Gralher, and Markus Weiler
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 3007–3019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-3007-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-3007-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We describe a novel technique for the precise, quasi real-time observation of water-stable isotopes in gross precipitation and throughfall from tree canopies in parallel. Various processes (e.g. rainfall intensity, evapotranspiration, exchange with ambient vapour) thereby control throughfall intensity and isotopic composition. The achieved temporal resolution now competes with common meteorological measurements, thus enabling new ways to employ water-stable isotopes in forested catchments.
Karl Auerswald, Franziska K. Fischer, Tanja Winterrath, and Robert Brandhuber
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1819–1832, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1819-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1819-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Radar rain data enable for the first time portraying the erosivity pattern with high spatial and temporal resolution. This allowed quantification of erosivity in Germany with unprecedented detail. Compared to previous estimates, erosivity has strongly increased and its seasonal distribution has changed, presumably due to climate change. As a consequence, erosion for some crops is 4 times higher than previously estimated.
Jeffrey C. Davids, Martine M. Rutten, Anusha Pandey, Nischal Devkota, Wessel David van Oyen, Rajaram Prajapati, and Nick van de Giesen
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1045–1065, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1045-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1045-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Wise management of water resources requires data. Nevertheless, the amount of water data being collected continues to decline. We evaluated potential citizen science approaches for measuring flows of headwater streams and springs. After selecting salt dilution as the preferred approach, we partnered with Nepali students to cost-effectively measure flows and water quality with smartphones at 264 springs and streams which provide crucial water supplies to the rapidly expanding Kathmandu Valley.
Hylke E. Beck, Ming Pan, Tirthankar Roy, Graham P. Weedon, Florian Pappenberger, Albert I. J. M. van Dijk, George J. Huffman, Robert F. Adler, and Eric F. Wood
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 207–224, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-207-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-207-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We conducted a comprehensive evaluation of 26 precipitation datasets for the US using the Stage-IV gauge-radar dataset as a reference. The best overall performance was obtained by MSWEP V2.2, underscoring the importance of applying daily gauge corrections and accounting for reporting times. Our findings can be used as a guide to choose the most suitable precipitation dataset for a particular application.
Laurent Delobbe, Arnaud Watlet, Svenja Wilfert, and Michel Van Camp
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 93–105, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-93-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-93-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we explore the use of an underground superconducting gravimeter as a new source of in situ observations for the evaluation of radar-based precipitation estimates. The comparison of radar and gravity time series over 15 years shows that short-duration intense rainfall events cause a rapid decrease in the measured gravity. Rainfall amounts can be derived from this decrease. The gravimeter allows capture of rainfall at a much larger spatial scale than a traditional rain gauge.
Camila Alvarez-Garreton, Pablo A. Mendoza, Juan Pablo Boisier, Nans Addor, Mauricio Galleguillos, Mauricio Zambrano-Bigiarini, Antonio Lara, Cristóbal Puelma, Gonzalo Cortes, Rene Garreaud, James McPhee, and Alvaro Ayala
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 5817–5846, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-5817-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-5817-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
CAMELS-CL provides a catchment dataset in Chile, including 516 catchment boundaries, hydro-meteorological time series, and 70 catchment attributes quantifying catchments' climatic, hydrological, topographic, geological, land cover and anthropic intervention features. By using CAMELS-CL, we characterise hydro-climatic regional variations, assess precipitation and potential evapotranspiration uncertainties, and analyse human intervention impacts on catchment response.
Julie M. Thériault, Ida Hung, Paul Vaquer, Ronald E. Stewart, and John W. Pomeroy
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 4491–4512, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-4491-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-4491-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Precipitation events associated with rain and snow on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, Canada, are a critical aspect of the regional water cycle. The goal is to characterize the precipitation and weather conditions in the Kananaskis Valley, Alberta, during a field experiment. Mainly dense solid precipitation reached the surface and occurred during downslope and upslope conditions. The precipitation phase has critical implications on the severity of flooding events in the area.
Alfonso Fernández, Ariel Muñoz, Álvaro González-Reyes, Isabella Aguilera-Betti, Isadora Toledo, Paulina Puchi, David Sauchyn, Sebastián Crespo, Cristian Frene, Ignacio Mundo, Mauro González, and Raffaele Vignola
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2921–2935, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2921-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2921-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Short-term river discharge records hamper assessment of the severity of modern droughts in south-central Chile, making effective water management difficult. To support decision-making, we present a ~300-year tree-ring reconstruction of summer discharge for this region. Results show that since 1980, droughts have become more frequent and are related to a shift in large-scale climate. We argue that water managers should use this long-term view to better allocate water rights.
Marta Angulo-Martínez, Santiago Beguería, Borja Latorre, and María Fernández-Raga
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2811–2837, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2811-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2811-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Two optical disdrometers, OTT Parsivel2 disdrometer and Thies Clima laser precipitation monitor (LPM), are compared. Analysis of 2 years of one-minute replicated data showed significant differences. Thies LPM recorded a larger number of particles than Parsivel2 and a higher proportion of small particles, resulting in higher rain rates and amounts and differences in radar reflectivity and kinetic energy. Possible causes for these differences, and their practical consequences, are discussed.
Kay Helfricht, Lea Hartl, Roland Koch, Christoph Marty, and Marc Olefs
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2655–2668, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2655-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2655-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We calculated hourly new snow densities from automated measurements. This time interval reduces the influence of settling of the freshly deposited snow. We found an average new snow density of 68 kg m−3. The observed variability could not be described using different parameterizations, but a relationship to temperature is partly visible at hourly intervals. Wind speed is a crucial parameter for the inter-station variability. Our findings are relevant for snow models working on hourly timescales.
Sibo Zhang, Jean-Christophe Calvet, José Darrozes, Nicolas Roussel, Frédéric Frappart, and Gilles Bouhours
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 1931–1946, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-1931-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-1931-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Surface soil moisture was retrieved from a grassland site in southwestern France using the GNSS-IR technique. In order to efficiently limit the impact of perturbing vegetation effects, the grass growth period and the senescence period are treated separately. While the vegetation biomass effect can be corrected for, the litter water interception influences the observations and cannot be easily accounted for.
John Kochendorfer, Rodica Nitu, Mareile Wolff, Eva Mekis, Roy Rasmussen, Bruce Baker, Michael E. Earle, Audrey Reverdin, Kai Wong, Craig D. Smith, Daqing Yang, Yves-Alain Roulet, Tilden Meyers, Samuel Buisan, Ketil Isaksen, Ragnar Brækkan, Scott Landolt, and Al Jachcik
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 1437–1452, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-1437-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-1437-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Due to the effects of wind, precipitation gauges typically underestimate the amount of precipitation that occurs as snow. Measurements recorded during a World Meteorological Organization intercomparison of precipitation gauges were used to evaluate and improve the adjustments that are available to address this issue. Adjustments for specific types of precipitation gauges and wind shields were tested and recommended.
Bart Schilperoort, Miriam Coenders-Gerrits, Willem Luxemburg, César Jiménez Rodríguez, César Cisneros Vaca, and Hubert Savenije
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 819–830, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-819-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-819-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Using the
DTStechnology, we measured the evaporation of a forest using fibre optic cables. The cables work like long thermometers, with a measurement every 12.5 cm. We placed the cables vertically along the tower, one cable being dry, the other kept wet. By looking at the dry and wet cable temperatures over the height we are able to study heat storage and the amount of water the forest is evaporating. These results can be used to better understand the storage and heat exchange of forests.
Sungmin O, Ulrich Foelsche, Gottfried Kirchengast, Juergen Fuchsberger, Jackson Tan, and Walter A. Petersen
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 6559–6572, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-6559-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-6559-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We evaluate gridded satellite rainfall estimates, from GPM IMERG, through a direct grid-to-grid comparison with gauge data from the WegenerNet Feldbach (WEGN) network in southeastern Austria. As the WEGN data are independent of the IMERG gauge adjustment process, we could analyze the IMERG estimates across its three different runs. Our results show the effects of additional retrieval processes on the final rainfall estimates, and consequently provide IMERG accuracy information for data users.
René D. Garreaud, Camila Alvarez-Garreton, Jonathan Barichivich, Juan Pablo Boisier, Duncan Christie, Mauricio Galleguillos, Carlos LeQuesne, James McPhee, and Mauricio Zambrano-Bigiarini
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 6307–6327, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-6307-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-6307-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This work synthesizes an interdisciplinary research on the megadrought (MD) that has afflicted central Chile since 2010. Although 1- or 2-year droughts are not infrequent in this Mediterranean-like region, the ongoing dry period stands out because of its longevity and large extent, leading to unseen hydrological effects and vegetation impacts. Understanding the nature and biophysical impacts of the MD contributes to confronting a dry, warm future regional climate scenario in subtropical regions.
Craig D. Smith, Garth van der Kamp, Lauren Arnold, and Randy Schmidt
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 5263–5272, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-5263-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-5263-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This research provides an example of how groundwater pressures measured in deep observation wells can be used as a reliable estimate, and perhaps as a reference, for event-based precipitation. Changes in loading at the surface due to the weight of precipitation are transferred to the groundwater formation and can be measured in the observation well. Correlations in precipitation measurements made with the
geolysimeterand the co-located sheltered precipitation gauge are high.
Idit Belachsen, Francesco Marra, Nadav Peleg, and Efrat Morin
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 5165–5180, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-5165-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-5165-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Spatiotemporal rainfall patterns in arid environments are not well-known. We derived properties of convective rain cells over the arid Dead Sea region from a long-term radar archive. We found differences in cell properties between synoptic systems and between flash-flood and non-flash-flood events. Large flash floods are associated with slow rain cells, directed downstream with the main catchment axis. Results from this work can be used for hydrological models and stochastic storm simulations.
Sibo Zhang, Nicolas Roussel, Karen Boniface, Minh Cuong Ha, Frédéric Frappart, José Darrozes, Frédéric Baup, and Jean-Christophe Calvet
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 4767–4784, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4767-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4767-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
GNSS SNR data were obtained from an intensively cultivated wheat field in southwestern France. The data were used to retrieve soil moisture and vegetation characteristics during the growing period of wheat. Vegetation growth broke up the constant height assumption used in soil moisture retrieval algorithms. Soil moisture could not be retrieved after wheat tillering. A new algorithm based on a wavelet analysis was implemented and used to retrieve vegetation height.
Bruce C. Scott-Shaw, Colin S. Everson, and Alistair D. Clulow
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 4551–4562, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4551-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4551-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
In South Africa, the invasion of riparian forests by alien trees has the potential to affect the limited water resources. To justify alien clearing programs, hydrological benefits are required. Spatial upscaling of measured sapflows showed that an alien stand used 6 times more water per unit area than the indigenous stand. A gain in groundwater recharge and/or streamflow would be achieved if the alien species were removed from riparian forests and rehabilitated back to their natural state.
Francesco Marra, Elisa Destro, Efthymios I. Nikolopoulos, Davide Zoccatelli, Jean Dominique Creutin, Fausto Guzzetti, and Marco Borga
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 4525–4532, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4525-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4525-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Previous studies have reported a systematic underestimation of debris flow occurrence thresholds, due to the use of sparse networks in non-stationary rain fields. We analysed high-resolution radar data to show that spatially aggregated estimates (e.g. satellite data) largely reduce this issue, in light of a reduced estimation variance. Our findings are transferable to other situations in which lower envelope curves are used to predict point-like events in the presence of non-stationary fields.
Feinan Xu, Weizhen Wang, Jiemin Wang, Ziwei Xu, Yuan Qi, and Yueru Wu
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 4037–4051, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4037-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4037-2017, 2017
John Kochendorfer, Rodica Nitu, Mareile Wolff, Eva Mekis, Roy Rasmussen, Bruce Baker, Michael E. Earle, Audrey Reverdin, Kai Wong, Craig D. Smith, Daqing Yang, Yves-Alain Roulet, Samuel Buisan, Timo Laine, Gyuwon Lee, Jose Luis C. Aceituno, Javier Alastrué, Ketil Isaksen, Tilden Meyers, Ragnar Brækkan, Scott Landolt, Al Jachcik, and Antti Poikonen
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 3525–3542, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3525-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3525-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Precipitation measurements were combined from eight separate precipitation testbeds to create multi-site transfer functions for the correction of unshielded and single-Alter-shielded precipitation gauge measurements. Site-specific errors and more universally applicable corrections were created from these WMO-SPICE measurements. The importance and magnitude of such wind speed corrections were demonstrated.
Nobuhle P. Majozi, Chris M. Mannaerts, Abel Ramoelo, Renaud Mathieu, Alecia Nickless, and Wouter Verhoef
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 3401–3415, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3401-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3401-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
The study analysed the quality and partitioning of a 15-year surface energy dataset from Skukuza flux tower. The yearly mean energy balance ratio (EBR) was 0.93, with the dry season having the lowest ratio. Night ratio was lower than daytime, with analysis showing an increase in EBR with increase in friction velocity, which is also linked to time of day. The energy partitioning showed that sensible heat flux is the dominant portion in the dry season, and latent heat flux during the wet season.
Juan C. Chacon-Hurtado, Leonardo Alfonso, and Dimitri P. Solomatine
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 3071–3091, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3071-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3071-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This paper compiles most of the studies (as far as the authors are aware) on the design of sensor networks for measurement of precipitation and streamflow. The literature shows that there is no overall consensus on the methods for the evaluation of sensor networks, as different design criteria often lead to different solutions. This paper proposes a methodology for the classification of methods, and a general framework for the design of sensor networks.
John Kochendorfer, Roy Rasmussen, Mareile Wolff, Bruce Baker, Mark E. Hall, Tilden Meyers, Scott Landolt, Al Jachcik, Ketil Isaksen, Ragnar Brækkan, and Ronald Leeper
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 1973–1989, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1973-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1973-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Snowfall measurements recorded using precipitation gauges are subject to significant underestimation due to the effects of wind. Using measurements recorded at two different precipitation test beds, corrections for unshielded gauges and gauges within different types of windshields were developed and tested. Using the new corrections, uncorrectable errors were quantified, and measurement biases were successfully eliminated.
Stephen D. Parkes, Matthew F. McCabe, Alan D. Griffiths, Lixin Wang, Scott Chambers, Ali Ershadi, Alastair G. Williams, Josiah Strauss, and Adrian Element
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 533–548, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-533-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-533-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Determining atmospheric moisture sources is required for understanding the water cycle. The role of land surface fluxes is a particular source of uncertainty for moisture budgets. Water vapour isotopes have the potential to improve constraints on moisture sources. In this work relationships between water vapour isotopes and land–atmosphere exchange are studied. Results show that land surface evaporative fluxes play a minor role in the daytime water and isotope budgets in semi-arid environments.
Ehsan Rabiei, Uwe Haberlandt, Monika Sester, Daniel Fitzner, and Markus Wallner
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 3907–3922, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-3907-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-3907-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The value of using moving cars for rainfall measurement purposes (RCs) was investigated with laboratory experiments by Rabiei et al. (2013). They analyzed the Hydreon and Xanonex optical sensors against different rainfall intensities. A continuous investigation of using RCs with the derived uncertainties from laboratory experiments for areal rainfall estimation as well as implementing the data in a hydrological model are addressed in this study.
Sergio M. Vicente-Serrano, Cesar Azorin-Molina, Arturo Sanchez-Lorenzo, Ahmed El Kenawy, Natalia Martín-Hernández, Marina Peña-Gallardo, Santiago Beguería, and Miquel Tomas-Burguera
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 3393–3410, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-3393-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-3393-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
In this work we analyse the recent evolution and meteorological drivers of the atmospheric evaporative demand in the Canary Islands. We found that the reference evapotranspiration increased by 18.2 mm decade−1 – on average – between 1961 and 2013, with the highest increase recorded during summer. This increase was mainly driven by changes in the aerodynamic component, caused by a statistically significant reduction of the relative humidity.
Cited articles
Alcantarilla, P. F., Nuevo, J., and Bartoli, A.: Fast explicit diffusion for accelerated features in nonlinear scale spaces, Proceedings of 24th British Machine Vision Conference (BMVC), Bristol, UK, 9–13 September 2013, 13.1–13.11, https://doi.org/10.5244/C.27.13, 2013.
Allamano, P., Croci, A., and Laio, F.: Toward the camera rain gauge, Water Resour. Res., 51, 1744–1757, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016298, 2015.
Bossu, J., Hautière, N., and Tarel, J. P.: Rain or snow detection in image sequences through use of a histogram of orientation of streaks, Int. J. Comput. Vision, 93, 348–367, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11263-011-0421-7, 2011.
Bradley, S. G., Stow, C. D., and Lynch-Blosse, C. A.: Measurements of rainfall properties using long optical path imaging, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 17, 761–772, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2000)017<0761:MORPUL>2.0.CO;2, 2000.
Chylek, P.: A note on extinction and scattering efficiencies, J. Appl. Meteorol., 16, 321–322, 1977.
Dong, R., Liao, J., Li, B., Zhou, H., and Crookes, D.: Measurements of rainfall rates from videos, Proceedings of 10th International Congress on Image and Signal Processing, BioMedical Engineering and Informatics (CISP-BMEI), Shanghai, China, 14–16 October 2017, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1109/CISP-BMEI.2017.8302066, 2017.
Eltahir, E. A. B. and Bras, R. L.: Precipitation recycling, Rev. Geophys., 34, 367–378, https://doi.org/10.1029/96RG01927, 1996.
Fattal, R.: Single image dehazing, ACM T. Graphic., 27, https://doi.org/10.1145/1360612.1360671, 2008.
Garg, K. and Nayar, S. K.: Vision and rain, Int. J. Comput. Vision, 75, 3–27, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11263-006-0028-6, 2007.
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan: The digital elevation models, Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, https://www.gsi.go.jp/kiban/index.html, 19 February 2018.
Gilmore, T. E., Birgand, F., and Chapman, K. W.: Source and magnitude of error in an inexpensive image-based water level measurement system, J. Hydrol., 496, 178–186, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.05.011, 2013.
Grabner, M. and Kvicera, V.: The wavelength dependent model of extinction in fog and haze for free space optical communication, Opt. Express, 19, 3379–3386, https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.19.003379, 2011.
Haberlandt, U. and Sester, M.: Areal rainfall estimation using moving cars as rain gauges – a modelling study, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 1139–1151, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-1139-2010, 2010.
He, K., Sun, J., and Tang, X.: Single image haze removal using dark channel prior, IEEE T. Pattern Anal., 33, 2341–2353, https://doi.org/10.1109/TPAMI.2010.168, 2011.
Jacobs, N., Burgin, W., Fridrich, N., Abrams, A., Miskell, K., Braswell, B. H., Richardson, A. D., and Pless, R.: The global network of outdoor webcams: Properties and applications. ACM International Symposium on Advances in Geographic Information Systems, 111–120, https://doi.org/10.1145/1653771.1653789, 2009.
Jiang, S., Babovic, V., Zheng, Y., and Xiong, J.: Advancing opportunistic sensing in Hydrology: A novel approach to measuring rainfall with ordinary surveillance cameras, Water Resour. Res., 55, 3004–3027, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018WR024480, 2019.
Kanazawa, A.: Dataset for “Rainfall intensity estimations based on degradation characteristics of images taken with commercial cameras” (1/3), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7163149, 2022a.
Kanazawa, A.: Dataset for “Rainfall intensity estimations based on degradation characteristics of images taken with commercial cameras” (2/3), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7166150, 2022b.
Kanazawa, A.: Dataset for “Rainfall intensity estimations based on degradation characteristics of images taken with commercial cameras” (3/3), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7166178, 2022c.
Kanazawa, A.: Supplement for “Rainfall intensity estimations based on degradation characteristics of images taken with commercial cameras”, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13337020, 2024.
Kanazawa, A.: Codes for “Rainfall intensity estimations based on degradation characteristics of images taken with commercial cameras”, Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16305949, 2025.
Kidd, C., Becker, A., Huffman, G. J., Muller, C. L., Joe, P., Skofronick-Jackson, G., and Kirschbaum, D. B.: So, how much of the Earth's surface is covered by rain gauges?, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 98, 69–78, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00283.1, 2017.
Kim, D. and Noh, Y.: An aerosol extinction coefficient retrieval method and characteristics analysis of landscape images, Sensors, 21, 7282, https://doi.org/10.3390/s21217282, 2021.
Koschmieder, H.: Theorie der horizontalen sichtweite, Beitrage zur Physik der freien Atmosphare, 12, 171–181, 1924.
Lee, J., Byun, J., Baik, J., Jun, C., and Kim, H.-J.: Estimation of raindrop size distribution and rain rate with infrared surveillance camera in dark conditions, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 707–725, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-707-2023, 2023.
Leijnse, H., Uijlenhoet, R., and Stricker, J. N. M.: Rainfall measurement using radio links from cellular communication networks, Water Resour. Res., 43, W03201, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006WR005631, 2007.
Li, R., Tan, R. T., and Cheong. L.-F.: Robust optical flow in rainy scenes, Proceedings of the European Conference on Computer Vision (ECCV), Munich, Germany, 8–14 September, 299–317, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01267-0_18, 2018.
Li, S., Araujo, I. B., Ren, W., Wang, Z., Tokuda, E. K., Hirata Jr. R., Cesar Jr., R., Zhang, J., Guo, X., and Cao, X.: Single image deraining: A comprehensive benchmark analysis, Proc. CVPR IEEE, Long Beach, CA, USA, 15–20 June 2019, 3833–3842, https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR.2019.00396, 2019.
Lin, C. W., Lin, M. X., and Yang, S. H.: SOPNet Method for the Fine-Grained Measurement and Prediction of Precipitation Intensity Using Outdoor Surveillance Cameras, IEEE Access, 8, 188813–188824, https://doi.org/10.1109/Access.2020.3032430, 2020.
Lin, C. W., Huang, X., Lin, M., and Hong, S.: SF-CNN: Signal Filtering Convolutional Neural Network for Precipitation Intensity Estimation, Sensors, 22, 511, https://doi.org/10.3390/s22020551, 2022.
Luo, Y., Xu, Y., and Ji, H.: Removing rain from a single image via discriminative sparse coding, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), Santiago, Chile, 7–13 December 2015, 3397–3405, https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCV.2015.388, 2015.
Marshall, J. S. and Palmer, W. M. K.: The distribution of raindrops with size, J. Meteorol., 5, 165–166, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1948)005<0165:TDORWS>2.0.CO;2, 1948.
Marshall, J. S., Hitschfeld, W., and Gunn, K. L. S.: Advances in radar weather, Adv. Geophys., 2, 1–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2687(08)60310-6, 1955.
Meng, G., Wang, Y., Duan, J., Xiang, S., and Pan, C.: Efficient image dehazing with boundary constraint and contextual regularization, Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), Sydney, NSW, Australia, 1–8 December 2013, 617–624, https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCV.2013.82, 2013.
Messer, H., Zinevich, A., and Alpert, P.: Environmental monitoring by wireless communication networks, Science, 312, 713, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1120034, 2006.
Muste, M., Fujita, I., and Hauet, A.: Large-scale particle image velocimetry for measurements in riverine environments, Water Resour. Res., 46, W00D19, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008WR006950, 2008.
Narasimhan, S. G. and Nayar, S. K.: Vision and the atmosphere, Int. J. Comput. Vision, 48, 233–254, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016328200723, 2002.
Narasimhan, S. G. and Nayar, S. K.: Contrast restoration of weather degraded images, IEEE T. Pattern Anal., 25. 713–724, https://doi.org/10.1109/TPAMI.2003.1201821, 2003.
Natural Earth: Coastline, Natural Earth, https://www.naturalearthdata.com/downloads/10m-physical-vectors/10m-coastline/, last access: 13 August 2022.
Nedvidek, F., Schneider, C., Kucerovsky, Z., and Brannen, E.: Near-infrared extinction in rain measured using a single detector system, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 3, 391–399, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1986)003<0391:NIEIRM>2.0.CO;2, 1986.
Notarangelo, N. M., Hirano, K., Albano, R., and Sole, A.: Transfer learning with convolutional neural networks for rainfall detection in single images, Water, 13, 588, https://doi.org/10.3390/w13050588, 2021.
Overeem, A., Leijnse, H., and Uijlenhoet, R.: Measuring urban rainfall using microwave links from commercial cellular communication networks, Water Resour. Res., 47, W12505, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010WR010350, 2011.
Ozkaynak, H., Schatz, A. D., Thurston, G. D., Isaacs, R. G., and Husar, R. B.: Relationships between aerosol extinction coefficients derived from airport visual range observations and alternative measures of airborne particle mass, JAPCA J. Air Waste Ma., 35, 1176–1185, https://doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1985.10466020, 1985.
Qin, X., Wang, Z., Bai, Y., Xie, X., and Jia, H.: FFA-Net: Feature Fusion Attention Network for Single Image Dehazing, Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 34, 11908–11915, https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v34i07.6865, 2020.
Qu, Y., Chen, Y., Huang, J., and Xie, Y.: Enhanced PIX2PIX dehazing network, Proc. CVPR IEEE, Long Beach, CA, USA, 15–20 June 2019, 8152–8160, https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR.2019.00835, 2019.
Rabiei, E., Haberlandt, U., Sester, M., Fitzner, D., and Wallner, M.: Areal rainfall estimation using moving cars – computer experiments including hydrological modeling, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 3907–3922, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-3907-2016, 2016.
Rahimi, A. R., Holt, A. R., Upton, G. J. G., Krämer, S., Redder, A., and Verworn, H. R.: Attenuation calibration of an X-band weather radar using a microwave link, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 23, 395–405, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH1855.1, 2006.
Ren, D., Zuo, W., Hu, Q., Zhu, P., and Meng, D.: Progressive image deraining networks: A better and simpler baseline, Proc. CVPR IEEE, Long Beach, CA, USA, 15–20 June 2019, 3932–3941, https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR.2019.00406, 2019.
Rogers, R. R., Lamoureux, M. F., Bissonnette, L. R., and Peters, R. M.: Quantitative interpretation of laser ceilometer intensity profiles, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 14, 396–411, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1997)014<0396:QIOLCI>2.0.CO;2, 1997.
Serio, M. A., Carollo, F. G., and Ferro, V.: Raindrop size distribution and terminal velocity for rainfall erosivity studies. A review, J. Hydrol., 576, 210–228, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.06.040, 2019.
Shao, Y., Li, L., Ren, W., Gao, C., and Sang, N.: Domain adaptation for image dehazing, Proc. CVPR IEEE, Seattle, WA, USA, 13–19 June 2020, 2805–2814, https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR42600.2020.00288, 2020.
Shin, J., Kim, D., and Noh, Y.: Estimation of Aerosol Extinction Coefficient Using Camera Images and Application in Mass Extinction Efficiency Retrieval, Remote Sens., 14, 1224, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14051224, 2022.
Shipley, S. T., Eloranta, E. W., and Weinman, J. A.: Measurement of rainfall rates by lidar, J. Appl. Meteorol., 13, 800–807, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1974)013<0800:MORRBL>2.0.CO;2, 1974.
Sun, Q., Miao, C., Duan, Q., Ashouri, H., Sorooshian, S., and Hsu, K. L.: A Review of Global Precipitation Data Sets: Data Sources, Estimation, and Intercomparisons, Rev. Geophys., 56, 79–107, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017RG000574, 2018.
Suriza, A. Z., Md Rafiqul, I., Wajdi, A. K., and Naji, A. W.: Proposed parameters of specific rain attenuation prediction for Free Space Optics link operating in tropical region, J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phy., 94, 93–99, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2012.11.008, 2013.
Tan, R. T.: Visibility in bad weather from a single image. Proc. CVPR IEEE, Anchorage, AK, USA, 23–28 June 2008, https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR.2008.4587643, 2008.
Tauro, F., Selker, J., Van De Giesen, N., Abrate, T., Uijlenhoet, R., Porfiri, M., Manfreda, S., Caylor, K., Moramarco, T., Benveniste, J., Ciraolo, G., Estes, L., Domeneghetti, A., Perks, M. T., Corbari, C., Rabiei, E., Ravazzani, G., Bogena, H., Harfouche, A., Brocca, L., Maltese, A., Wickert, A., Tarpanelli, A., Good, S., Alcala, J. M. L., Petroselli, A., Cudennec, C., Blume, T., Hut, R., and Grimaldi, S.: Measurements and observations in the XXI century (MOXXI): Innovation and multi-disciplinarity to sense the hydrological cycle, Hydrolog. Sci. J., 63, 169–196, https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2017.1420191, 2018.
Tripathi, A. K. and Mukhopadhyay, S.: Efficient fog removal from video, Signal Image Video P., 8, 1431–1439, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11760-012-0377-2, 2014.
Uchiyama, A., Yamazaki, A., Kudo, R., Kobayashi, E., Togawa, H., and Uesawa, D.: Continuous ground-based observation of aerosol optical properties at Tsukuba, Japan: Trend and climatology, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 92A, 93–108, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2014-A06, 2014.
Uchiyama, A., Chen, B., Yamazaki, A., Shi, G., Kudo, R., Nishita-Hara, C., Hayashi, M., Habib, A., and Matsunaga, T.: Aerosol optical characteristics in Fukuoka and Beijing measured by integrating nephelometer and aethalometer: Comparison of source and downstream regions, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 96, 215–240, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2018-026, 2018.
Uijlenhoet, R.: Raindrop size distributions and radar reflectivity–rain rate relationships for radar hydrology, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 5, 615–628, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-5-615-2001, 2001.
Uijlenhoet, R., Cohard, J. M., and Gosset, M.: Path-average rainfall estimation from optical extinction measurements using a large-aperture scintillometer, J. Hydrometeorol., 12, 955–972, https://doi.org/10.1175/2011JHM1350.1, 2011.
Uijlenhoet, R., Overeem, A., and Leijnse, H.: Opportunistic remote sensing of rainfall using microwave links from cellular communication networks, WIREs Water, 2018; 5:e1289, https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1289, 2018.
Ulbrich, C. W. and Atlas, D.: Extinction of visible and infrared radiation in rain: Comparison of theory and experiment, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 2, 331–339, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1985)002<0331:EOVAIR>2.0.CO;2, 1985.
Upton, G. J. G., Holt, A. R., Cummings, R. J., Rahimi, A. R., and Goddard, J. W. F.: Microwave links: The future for urban rainfall measurement?, Atmos. Res., 77, 300–312, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2004.10.009, 2005.
Wang, H., Yue, Z. S., Xie, Q., Zhao, Q., Zheng, Y., and Meng, D.: From Rain Generation to Rain Removal, Proc. CVPR IEEE, 20–25 June 2021, 14786–14796, https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR46437.2021.01455, 2021.
Wang, X., Wang, M., Liu, X., Zhu, L., Shi, S., Glade, T., Chen, M., Xie, Y., Wu, Y., and He, Y.: Near-infrared surveillance video-based rain gauge, J. Hydrol., 618, 129173, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.129173, 2023.
World Meteorological Organization: Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO-No. 8), in: Measurement of Meteorological Variables, vol. I, World Meteorological Organization, 574 pp., https://library.wmo.int/idurl/4/41650, 2023.
Wu, H., Qu, Y., Lin, S., Zhou, J., Qiao, R., Zhang, Z., Xie, Y., and Ma, L.: Contrastive Learning for Compact Single Image Dehazing, Proc. CVPR IEEE, Nashville, TN, USA, 20–25 June 2021, 10551–10560, https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR46437.2021.01041, 2021.
Yan, K., Chen, H., Hu, L., Huang, K., Huang, Y., Wang, Z., Liu, B., Wang, J., and Guo, S.: A review of video-based rainfall measurement methods, WIREs Water, 2023;10:e1678, https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1678, 2023.
Yang, D. and Sun, J.: Proximal dehaze-net: A prior learning-based deep network for single image dehazing, Proceedings of the European Conference on Computer Vision (ECCV), Munich, Germany, 8–14 September 2018, 729–746, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01234-2_43, 2018.
Yin, H., Zheng, F., Duan, H.-F., Savic, D., and Kaplean, Z.: Estimating Rainfall Intensity Using an Image-Based Deep Learning Model, Engineering, 21, 162–174, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2021.11.021, 2023.
Zaki, R. W., Fayed, H. A., El Aziz, A. A., and Aly, M. H.: Outdoor visible light communication in intelligent transportation systems: Impact of snow and rain, Appl. Sci., 9, 5453, https://doi.org/10.3390/app9245453, 2019.
Zhang, H.: image_dehaze, https://github.com/He-Zhang/image_dehaze (last access: 5 October 2022), 2021.
Zheng, F., Yin, H., Ma, Y., Duan, H.-F., Gupta, H., Savic, D., and Kapelan, Z.: Toward Improved Real-Time Rainfall Intensity Estimation Using Video Surveillance Cameras, Water Resour. Res., 59, e2023WR034831, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023WR034831, 2023.
Zhou, C., Teng, M., Han, Y., Xu, C., and Shi, B.: Learning to dehaze with polarization, Proceedings of the 35th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2021), virtual conference, 6–14 December 2021, 11487–11500, 2021.
Zinevich, A., Messer, H., and Alpert, P.: Frontal rainfall observation by a commercial microwave communication network, J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim., 48, 1317–1334, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JAMC2014.1, 2009.
Short summary
Camera-based rainfall observation can measure rainfall with high spatiotemporal resolution and low cost. This study proposed a method for estimating rainfall intensity from images using the relationship between image information and rainfall intensity. The method was applied to outdoor cameras, and rainfall intensity could be estimated from the images. The method has the potential to facilitate the development of a camera-based rainfall observation technology that is accurate and versatile.
Camera-based rainfall observation can measure rainfall with high spatiotemporal resolution and...
