HESS Hydrology and Earth System Sciences HESS Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 1607-7938 Copernicus Publications Göttingen, Germany 10.5194/hess-13-491-2009 The dynamics of cultivation and floods in arable lands of Central Argentina Viglizzo E. F. 2 1 Jobbágy E. G. 3 2 Carreño L. 3 1 Frank F. C. 1 Aragón R. 3 De Oro L. 2 Salvador V. 1 INTA, Centro Regional La Pampa, Area of Environmental Management, Av. Spinetto 785, P.O. Box 302, 6300 Santa Rosa, La Pampa, Argentina CONICET, Av. Spinetto 785, P.O. Box 302, 6300 Santa Rosa, La Pampa, Argentina Grupo de Estudios Ambientales IMASL, Ej. de los Andes 950 5700 San Luis, San Luis, Argentina 09 04 2009 13 4 491 502 Copyright: © 2009 E. F. Viglizzo et al. 2009 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ This article is available from https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/13/491/2009/hess-13-491-2009.html The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/13/491/2009/hess-13-491-2009.pdf

Although floods in watersheds have been associated with land-use change since ancient times, the dynamics of flooding is still incompletely understood. In this paper we explored the relations between rainfall, groundwater level, and cultivation to explain the dynamics of floods in the extremely flat and valuable arable lands of the Quinto river watershed, in central Argentina. The analysis involved an area of 12.4 million hectare during a 26-year period (1978–2003), which comprised two extensive flooding episodes in 1983–1988 and 1996–2003. Supported by information from surveys as well as field and remote sensing measurements, we explored the correlation among precipitation, groundwater levels, flooded area and land use. Flood extension was associated to the dynamics of groundwater level. While no correlation with rainfall was recorded in lowlands, a significant correlation (<i>P</i>&lt;0.01) between groundwater and rainfall in highlands was found when estimations comprise a time lag of one year. Correlations between groundwater level and flood extension were positive in all cases, but while highly significant relations (<i>P</i>&lt;0.01) were found in highlands, non significant relations (<i>P</i>&gt;0.05) predominate in lowlands. Our analysis supports the existence of a cyclic mechanism driven by the reciprocal influence between cultivation and groundwater in highlands. This cycle would involve the following stages: (a) cultivation boosts the elevation of groundwater levels through decreased evapotranspiration; (b) as groundwater level rises, floods spread causing a decline of land cultivation; (c) flooding propitiates higher evapotranspiration favouring its own retraction; (d) cultivation expands again following the retreat of floods. Thus, cultivation would trigger a destabilizing feedback self affecting future cultivation in the highlands. It is unlikely that such sequence can work in lowlands. The results suggest that rather than responding directly and solely to the same mechanism, floods in lowlands may be the combined result of various factors like local rainfall, groundwater level fluctuations, surface and subsurface lateral flow, and water-body interlinking. Although the hypothetical mechanisms proposed here require additional understanding efforts, they suggest a promising avenue of environmental management in which cultivation could be steered in the region to smooth the undesirable impacts of floods.

 References Allison, G. B., Cook, P. G., Barnett, S. R., Walker, G. R., Jolly, I. D., Hughes, M. W.: Land clearance and river salinisation in the western Murray Basin, Australia, J. Hydrology, 119, 1–20, 1990. Andréassian, V.: Waters and forests: from historical controversy to scientific debate, J. Hydrology, 291, 1–27, 2004. Aradas, R. D., Lloyd, J., Wicks, J., and Palmer, J.: Groundwater problems in low elevations regional plains: The Buenos Aires province example, Groundwater and Human Development, edited by: Bocanegra, E. D., Martínez, and D., Massone, H., 613–623, 2002. Bailey, R. G.: Description of the Ecoregions of the United States, Misc. Publ. No. 1391, USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC, USA, 1995. Bosh, J. M. and Hewlett, J. D.: A review of catchment experiments to determine the effect of vegetation changes on water yield and evapotranspiration, J. Hydrology, 55, 3–23, 1982. Briske, D. D., Fuhlendorf, S. D., and Smeins, F. E.: A unified framework for assessment and application of ecological thresholds, Rangeland Ecology and Management, 59, 225–236, 2006. Buringh, P. and Dudal, R.: Agricultural land use in space and time, in: Land Transformation in Agriculture SCOPE, edited by: Wolman, M. G. and Fournier, F. G. A., John Wiley & Sons, 9–45, 1987. Calder, I. R.: Water use by forests, limits and controls, Tree Physiology, 18, 625–631, 1998. Carcova, J., Maddonni, G. A., and Ghersa, C. M.: Long-Term Cropping Effects on Maize Crop Evapotranspiration and Grain Yield, Agron. J., 92, 1256–1265, 2000. Carignano, C.: Late Pleistocene to recent climate change in Córdoba Province, Argentina: Geomorphological evidence, Quaternary International, 57/58, 117–134, 1999. Clark, J. S., Carpenter, S. R., Barber, M., Collins, S., and Dobson, A.: Ecological forecasts: an emerging imperative, Science, 293, 657–660, 1988. Díaz Zorita, M., Pepi, M., and Grosso, G.: Estudio de las precipitaciones en el oeste bonaerense, Publicación Técnica No 23, EEA INTA General Villegas, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 15 pp., 1998. Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt, W. O.: Crop Water Requirements, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No 24, Rome, 1977. Elwell, H. A. and Stocking, M. A.: Vegetal cover to estimate soil erosion hazard in Rhodesia, Geoderma, 15, 61–70, 1976. Evans, R.: Extent, frequency and rates of rilling of arable land in localities in England and Wales, in: Farm Land Erosion in Temperate Plains Environment and Hills, edited by: Wicherek, S., Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 177–190, 1993. Faulkner, H.: Vegetation cover density variations and infiltration patterns on piped alkali sodic soils: Implications for the modelling of overland flow in semi-arid areas, in: Vegetation and Erosion, edited by: Thornes, J. B., Processes and Environments, Wiley, Chichester, UK, 363–384, 1990. Ferdowsian, R. and Bee, G.: The role of groundwater depth on the hydrological benefits of Lucerne and the subsequent recharge value, Proceedings of the 13th Agronomy Conference, The Australian Society of Agronomy, The Regional Institute Ltd., online available at: www.regional.org.au/au/asa, 2006. Francis, C. F. and Thornes, J. B.: Runoff hydrographs from three Mediterranean vegetation cover types, in: Vegetation and Erosion, Processes and Environments, edited by: Thornes, J. B., Wiley, Chichester, UK, 363–384, 1990. Fullen, M. A.: Soil compaction, hydrological processes and soil erosion on loamy sands in East Shropshire, England, Soil Tillage Research, 29, 17–29, 1985. Fuschini Mejía, M. C.: El Agua en las Llanuras (UNESCO, Oficina Regional de Ciencia y Tecnología para América Latina y el Caribe), Montevideo, Uruguay, 59 pp., 1994. Gardiol, J. M., Serio, L. A., and Della Maggiore, A. I.: Modelling evapotranspiration of corn (Zea mays) under different plant densities, J. Hydrol., 271, 188–196, 2003. Gilfedder, M., Smitt, C., Dawes, W., Petheram, C., Stauffacher, M., and Walker, G.: Impact of increased recharge on groundwater discharge: development and application of a simplified function using catchment parameters, Landscape and Industries, CSIRO/CRC/MDBC Publications, Canberra, Australia, 28 pp., 2003. Hall, A., Rebella, C., Ghersa, C., and Culot, P.: Field-crop systems of the Pampas, edited by: Pearson, C., in: Field Crop Ecosystems, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 413–450, 1992. Hornbeck, J. W., Adams, m. B., Corbett, E. S., Verry, E. S., Lynch, J. A.: Long-term impacts of forest treatments on water yield: a summary of northeastern USA, J. Hydrol, 150, 323–344, 1993. IPCC: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Summary for Policy Makers, Working Group 1 Report, Geneva, 18 pp., 2007. Iriondo, M.: Map of the South American plains-its present state, Quaternary of South America and Antartic Peninsula, 6, 297–308, 1990. Iriondo, M.: Climatic changes in the South American plains: Records of a continent-scale oscillation, Quaternary International, 57/58, 93–112, 1999. Jeong, H., Tombor, B., Albert, R., Oltvai, Z. N., and Barábasi, A. L.: The large-scale organization of metabolic networks, Nature, 407, 651–654, 2000. Jobbágy, E. G. and Jackson, R. B.: Groundwater use and salinization with grassland afforestation, Global Change Biology, 10, 1299–1312, 2004. Jobbágy, E. G., Nosetto, m. D., Santoni, C. S., and Baldi, G.: El desafío ecohidrológico de las transiciones entre sistemas leñosos y herbáceos en la llanura Chaco-Pampeana, Ecología Austral., 18, 305–322, 2008. King, A. W.: Considerations of scale and hierarchy, in: Ecological Integrity and the Management of Ecosystems, edited by: Woodley, S., Kay, J., and Francis, G., St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida, USA, 19–45, 1993. Kruse, E.: El agua subterránea y los procesos fluviales en la región centro-oriental de la provincia de Buenos Aires, in: Situación Ambiental de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, CIC II: 13–31, 1992. Kruse, E., Forte Lay, J. A., Aiello, J. L., Basualdo, A., and Heinzenknecht, G.: Hydrological processes on large flatlands. Case study: Northwest region of Buenos Aires province (Argentina), Remote Sensing and Hydrology 2000, IAHS Publication, 267, 531–536, 2001. Kruse, E. and Zimmermann, E.: Hidrogeología de Grandes Llanuras. Particularidades en la Llanura Pampeana (Argentina), Workshop publication on Groundwater and Human Development, 2025–2038, Mar del Plata, Argentina, 2002. Lee, C. R. and Skogerboe, J. G.: Quantification of erosion control by vegetation on problem soils, in: Soil Erosion and Conservation, edited by: Swaify, A., Moldenhauer, W. C., and Lo, A., Soil Conservation Soc. of America, 437–444, 1985. Le Maitre, D. C. and Versfeld, D. B.: Forest evaporation models: relations between stand growth and evaporation, J. Hydrol., 193, 240–257, 1997. Malagnino, E. C.: Late Pleistocen to late Holocene evolution of the paleodesert of the central region of Argentina and its paleoclimatic implications, International Conference on Desert Landscapes, International Geological Correlation Program, Project 252, Australia, 1991. Manfreda, S. and Fiorentino, A.: A stochastic approach for the description of the water balance dynamics in a river basin, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 12, 1189–1200, 2008. McNeill, J. R. and Winiwarter, V.: Breaking the sod: humankind, history and soil, Science, 304, 1627–1629, 2004. Meyboom, P.: Mass transfer studies to determine the groundwater regime of permanent lakes in hummocky moraine of western Canada, J. Hydrol., 5, 117–142, 1967. Meyer, W. S., Barrs, H. D., Mosier, A. R., and Schaefer, N. L.: Response of maize to three short-term periods of waterlogging at high and low nitrogen levels on undisturbed and repacked soil Irrigation Science, 8, 257–272, 1987. Moncaut, C. A.: Inundaciones y Sequías en la Pampa Bonaerense 1576–2001, Editorial El Aljibe, City Bell (Argentina), 102 pp., 2001. Montaldo, N., Rondena, R., and Albertson, J. D.: Parsimonious modeling of vegetation dynamics for eco-hydrological studies of water-limited ecosystems, Water Resour. Res., 41, W10416, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR004094, 2005. Newman, B. D., Wilcox, B. P., Archer, S. R., Breshears, D. D., Dahm, C. N., Duffy, C. J., McDowell, N. G., Phillips, F. M., Scanlon, B. R., and Vivoni, E. R.: Ecohydrology of water-limited environments: A scientific vision, Water Resour. Res., 42, 1–15, 2006. Nosetto, M. D., Jobbágy, E. G., and Paruelo, J. M.: Land use change and water losses: the case of grassland afforestation across a soil textural gradient in central Argentina, Global Change Biol., 11, 1101–1117, 2005. O'Neill, R. V., Turner, S. J., Cullinan, V. I., Coffin, D. P., Cook, T., Conley, W., Brunt, J., Thomas, J. M., Conley, M. R., and Gosz, J.: Multiple landscape scales: an inter-site comparison, Landscape Ecology, 5, 137–144, 1991. Paruelo, J. M. and Sala, O. E.: Caracterización de las inundaciones en la Depresión del Salado (Buenos Aires, Argentina): Dinámica de la napa freática, Turrialba, 40, 5–11, 1990. Peters, D. P. C., Pielke, S. R., Bestelmeyer, B., Allen, C. D., Munson-McGee, S., and Havstad, K. M.: Cross-scale interactions, nonlinearities, and forecasting catastrophic events, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 101, 15130–15135, 2004. Rial, J. A., Pielke, R. A., Beniston, M., Claussen, M., Canadell, J., Cox, P., Held, H., de Noblet-Ducoudré, J., Prinn, R., Reynolds, J. F., and Salas, J. D.: Nonlinearities, feedbacks and critical thresholds within the earth's climate system, Clim. Change, 65, 11-38, 2004. Rodríguez-Iturbe, I., Isham, V., Cox, D. R., Manfreda, S., and Porporato, A.: Space-time modelling of soil moisture: Stochastic rainfall forcing with heterogeneous vegetation, Water Resour. Res,, 42, W06D05, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR004497, 2006. Saravia, J. R., Benavidez, R. Canziani, O., Ferreiro, V., and Hernández, M. A.: Lineamientos Generales y Regionales para un Plan Maestro de Ordenamiento Hídrico del Territorio Bonaerense, Convenio Ministerio de Obras y Servicios P\'ublicos de la Nación-Provincia de Buenos Aires, 323 pp., 1987. Satorre, E.: Production systems in the Argentine Pampas and their ecological impact, in: The impact of Global Change and Information on the Rural Environment, edited by: Solbrig, O., di Castri, F., and Paalberg, R., Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 81–102, 2001. Scanlon, B. R., Reedy, R., Stonestrom, D. A., Prudic, D. E., and Dennehy, K. F.: Impact of land use and land cover change on groundwater recharge and quality in the southwestern USA, Global Change Biol., 11, 1577–1593, 2005. Scarpati, O. E., Spescha, L., and Capriolo, A. D.: The impact of the heavy floods in the Salado River basin, Buenos Aires province, Argentina, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 7, 285–301, 2002. Scheffer, M., Carpenter, S., Foley, J. A., Folkes, C., and Walker, B.: Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems, Nature, 413, 591–596, 2001. Smith, L. C.: Satellite remote sensing of river inundation area, stage, and discharge: a review, Hydrol. Proc., 11, 1427–1439, 1997. Sophocleus, M.: Interactions between groundwater and surface water: the state of the science, Hydrogeol. J., 10, 52–67, 2002. Tanco, R. and Kruse, E.: Prediction of seasonal water-Table~fluctuations in La Pampa and Buenos Aires, Argentina, Hydrogeol. J., 9 (4), 339–347, 2001. Tóth, J.: A theoretical analysis of groundwater flow in small drainage basins, J. Geophys. Res., 68, 4785–4812, 1963. Tóth, J.: A conceptual model of the groundwater regime and the hydrogeologic environment, J. Hydrol., 10, 164–176, 1970. Viglizzo, E. F., Lértora, F., Pordomingo, A. J., Bernardos, J., Roberto, Z. E., and Del Valle, H.: Ecological lessons and applications from one century of low external-input farming in the pampas of Argentina, Agriculture, Ecosys. Environ., 83, 65–81, 2001. Viglizzo, E. F., Pordomingo, A. J., Buschiazzo, D., and Castro, M. G.: A methodological approach to assess cross-scale relations and interactions in agricultural ecosystems of Argentina, Ecosystems, 8, 546–558, 2005. Viglizzo, E. F., Pordomingo, A. J., Castro, M. G., Lértora, F. A., and Bernardos, J. N.: Scale-dependent controls on ecological functions in agroecosystems of Argentina, Agriculture, Ecosys. Environ., 101, 39–51, 2004. Viglizzo, E. F., Roberto, Z. E., Lértora, F. A., López Gay, E., and Bernardos, J.: Climate and land-use change in field-crop ecosystems of Argentina, Agriculture, Ecosys. Environ., 66, 61–70, 1997. Wagenet, R. J.: Scale issues in agroecological research chains, Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 50, 23–34, 1998. Ward, P., Dolling, P., and Duning, F.: The impact of Lucerne phase in a crop rotation on groundwater recharge in South-West Australia, Proceedings of the 13th Agronomy Conference, The Australian Society of Agronomy, The Regional Institute Ltd., available at: www.regional.org.au/au/asa/, 2006. Wilcox, B. P., Seyfried, M. S., and Breshears, D. D.: The water balance on rangelands, in: Encyclopedia of Water Science, edited by: Stewart, B. A., Howell, T. A., and Dekker, M., New York, USA, 791–794, 2003. Wilcox, B. P. and Thurow, T. L.: Emerging issues in rangeland eco-hydrology: vegetation change and the water cycle, Rangeland Ecology and Management, 59, 220–224, 2006. Winter, T. C.: Relation of streams, lakes, and wetlands to groundwater flow systems, Hydrogeol. J., 7, 28–45, 1999. Withers, P. J. A., Hodgkinson, R. A., Bates, A., and Withers, C. L.: Soil cultivation effects on sediment and phosphorus mobilization in surface runoff from three contrasting soil types in England, Soil Till. Res., 93, 438–451, 2007. Zárate, M.: Loess of southern South America, Quat. Sci. Rev., 22, 1987–2006, 2003. Zarrilli, A.: Producción Agraria y Transformaciones Ecológicas en la Argentina. Los Límites de la Producción Rural Pampeana. 1930–1950, X Congreso Nacional y Regional de la Historia, Santa Rosa (La Pampa), Argentina, 1999. Zhang, L., Dawes, R. W., and Walker, G. R.: Response of mean annual evapotranspiration to vegetation changes at catchment scale, Water Resour. Res., 37, 701–708, 2001.